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RACES AND PEOPLES 

LECTURES 

ON THE 

SCIENCE OF ETHNOGRAPHY 



DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., 

Professor of Ethnology at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 
and of American Arch'ceology and Linguistics in the University of Penn- 
sylvania ; President of the American Folk-Lore Society and of the 
Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia ; Member 
of the Anthropological Societies of Berlin and Vienna and of 
the Ethnographical Societies of Paris and Florence, of 
the Royal Society of Antiquaries^ Copenhagen, the 
Royal Academy of History of Madrid, the 
American Philosophical Society, the 
American Antiquarian Society^ 
Etc., Etc.y Etc, 



PHILADELPHIA 

DAVID McKAY, Publisher 
1901 



Copyright 
By D. G. Brinton. 

5--,^ 3 ^ ^ 



\ 



^ 



y i, 

.\<^^ 



„ ••* 



TO 

HORATIO HALE, 

PHILOLOGIST TO THE UNITED STATES EXPLORING 

EXPEDITION IN 1838-42, 

WHOSE MANY AND VALUABLE 

CONTRIBUTIONS TO LINGUISTICS AND ETHNOGRAPHY 

PLACE HIM TO-DAY AMONG THE FOREMOST AUTHORITIES 

ON THESE SCIENCES, 

THIS VOLUME 

IS INSCRIBED IN RESPECT AND FRIENDSHIP 

BY THE AUTHOR. 



PREFACE. 



THE lectures which appear in this volume were delivered 
at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 
in the early months of 1890. They have since been written 
out, and references added in the foot-notes to a number 
of works and articles, which will enable the student to 
pursue his readings on any point in which he may be in- 
terested. My endeavor has been to present the results of 
the latest and most accurate researches on the subjects 
treated ; though no one can be better aware than myself 
that in compressing such an extensive science into so 
Umited a space, I have often necessarily been superficial. 
It is some excuse for the publication, if one is needed, 
that I am not aware of any other recent work upon this 
science written in the English language. 

Philadelphiay August, i8go, 

(5) 



CONTENTS. 



LECTURE I. 

PAGE 

THE PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY 17 

Contents. — Differences and resemblances in individuals and 
races the basis of Ethnography. The Bones. Craniology. 
Its limited value. Long and short skulls. Height of skull. 
Sutures. Inca bone. The orbital index. The nasal index. 
The maxillary and facial angles. The cranial capacity. The 
teeth. The iliac bones. Length of the arms. The flattened 
tibia. The projecting heel. The heart line. The Color. 
Its extent ; cause ; scale of colors. Color of the eyes. The 
Hair. Shape in cross section; abundance. The muscular 
structure ; anomalies in ; muscular habits : arrow releases. 
Steatopygy, Stature and proportion ; the *' canon of propor- 
tion ; " special senses ; the color-sense. Ethnic relations of 
the sexes. Beauty ; muscular power ; brain capacity ; viabil- 
ity. Correlation of physical traits to vital powers. Tolerance 
of climate and disease. Causes of the fixation of ethnic 
traits. Climate ; food supply ; natural selection ; conscious 
selection ; the physical ideal ; sexual preference ; abhorrence 
of incest ; exogamous marriages. Causes of variation in 
types. Changes in environment ; migrations ; reversion ; 
albinism and melanism ; fecundity and sterility. The min- 
gling of races ; metissage. Physical criteria of racial su- 
periority. Review of physical elements. 

(7) 



8 CONTENTS. 

LECTURE II. 

PAGE 

THE PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY« . . 51 

Contents. — The mental differences of races. Ethnic psychology; 
Cause of psychical development, 

I. The Associative Elements, i. The Social Instincts: 

sexual impulse; primitive marriage; conception of love; 
parental affection ; filial and fraternal affection ; friendship ; 
ancestral worship ; the gens or clan ; the tribe ; personal 
loyalty ; the social organization ; systems of consanguinity ; 
position of woman in the state ; ethical standards ; modesty. 

2. Language : universality of ; primeval speech ; rise of 
linguistic stocks; their number; grammatical structure; 
classes of languages ; morphologic scheme ; relation of 
language to thought ; significance of language in ethnography. 

3. Religion : universality of ; early forms ; family and tribal 
religions; universal or world religions ; ethnic study of relig- 
ions ; comparison of Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism ; 
material and ideal religions ; associative influences of relig- 
ions.- 4. The Arts of Life: architecture; agriculture; 
domestication of animals ; inventions. 

II. The Dispersive Elements : adaptability of man to sur- 

roundings. I. The Migratory Instincts: love of roaming; 
early commerce; lines of traffic and migration. 2. The 
Combative Instincts : primitive condition of war ; love of 
combat; its advantages; heroes; development through 
conflict. 



LECTURE III. 

THE BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES.. 79 

Contents.— The origin of Man. Theories of monogenism and 
polygenism ; of evolution ; heterogenesis. Identities point 
to one origin. Birthplace of the species. The oldest human 
relics. Remains of the highest apes. Question of climate. 
Negative arguments. Darwin's belief that the species origi- 



CONTENTS. 9 

PAGE 

nated in Africa confirmed ; but with modifications. Quarter- 
nary geography of Europe and Africa. Northern Africa 
united with Southern Europe. Former shore lines. The 
Sahara Sea. The quarternary continents of " Eurafrica '* 
and " Austafrica." Relics of man in them. Man in pre- 
glacial times. The Glacial Age. Effect on man. His con- 
dition and acquirements. Appearance of primitive man. 
His development into races. Approximate data of this. 
Localities where it occurred. The " areas of characteriza- 
tion." Relations of continents to races. Theory of Lin- 
naeus ; of modern ethnography. The continental areas : 
Eurafrica ; Austafrica ; Asia ; America. Classification of 
races. Subdivisions of races ; branches ; stocks ; groups ; 
peoples ; tribes ; nations. General ethnographic scheme. 
Other terms: ethnos and ethnic; culture; civilization. 
Stadia of culture. 



LECTURE IV. 

THE EURAFRICAN RACE; SOUTH MEDITERRA- 
NEAN BRANCH 103 

Contents. — The White Race. Synonyms. Properly an African 
Race ; relative areas ; purest specimens. Types of the 
White race; Libyo-Teutonic type; Cymric type; Celtic 
type ; Euskaric type. Variability of traits. Primal home 
of the White Race not in Asia, but in Eurafrica. Early 
migrations and subdivisions. North Mediterranean and 
South Mediterranean branches. 

A. — The South MEDrrKRRANEAN Branch. 

I. The PIamitic Stock. Relation to Semitic, i. The Libyan 
Group. Location. Peoples included. Physical appear- 
ance. The Libyan blondes ; languages. Early history ; 
European afiiliations ; relations to Iberian tribes : the names 
Ideri and Bei'beri. Government. Migration. The Etrus- 
cans as Libyans. Later history ; present culture. Syrian 
Hamites and their influence. 2. The Egyptian Group. 



lO CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Kinship to Libyans. Physical appearance. The stone age 
in Egypt. Antiquity of Egyptian culture. Its influence. 
Physical traits. 3. The East African Group. Relations to 

/ Egypt. 

^11. The Semitic Stock, Plrst entered Arabia from Africa. 
I. The Arabian Group, Early divisions and culture. The 
Arabs. Physical types ; mental temperament ; religious 
idealisms. 2. The Abyssinian Group. Tribes included. 
Period of migration. Condition. 3. The Chaldean Group. 
Tribes included. The modern Jew. 



LECTURE V. 

THE EURAFRIC AN RACE ; NORTH MEDITERRANEAN 

BRANCH 141 

Contents. — B. — The North JMediterranean Branch. 

I, The Euskaric Stock. Basques and their congeners. Phys- 

ical type. Language. 

II. The Aryac Stock. Synonyms. Origin of the Aryans. 

Supposed Asiatic origin now doubted. The Aryac physical 
type. The prot- Aryac language. Culture of proto-Aryans. 
The " proto-Aryo-Semitic " tongue. Development of in- 
flections. Prot-Aryac migrations. Southern and northern 
streams. Approximate dates. Scheme of Aryac migra- 
tions. Divisions, i. The Celtic Peoples. Members and 
location. Physical and mental traits. 2. The Italic Peoples. 
Ancient and modern members. Physical traits. The 
modern Romance nations. Mental traits. 3. The Illyric 
Peoples. Members and physical traits. The Hellenic 
Peoples. Ancient and modern Greeks. Physical type. 
Influence of Greek culture, 5. The Lettic Peoples. Posi- 
tion and language. 6. The Teutonic Peoples. Ancient 
and modern members. Mental character. Recent progress. 
7. The Slavonic Peoples. Ancient and modern members. 
Physical traits. Recent expansion. Character. Relations 
to Asiatic Aryans. 8. The Indo-Eranic Peoples. Arrival 
in Asia. Location. Members. Indian Aryans. Appear- 
ance, Mental aptitude. 



CONTENTS. II 

PAGE 



III. The Caucasic Stock. Its languages. Various groups 
and members. Physical types. Error of supposing the 
white race came from the Caucasus. 



LECTURE VI. 

THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE 173 

Contents. — Former geography of Africa. Area of character- 
ization of the race. Its early extension. Divisions. 

I. The Negrillos. Classical tales of Pygmies. Physical char- 

acters. Habits. Relationship to Bushmen. Description 
of Bushmen and Hottentots. 

II. The Negroes. Home of the true negroes, i. The Nilotic 
Group. 2. The Sudanese Group. 3. The Senegambian 
Group. 4, The Guinean Group. 

III. The Negroids. Physical traits. Early admixtures. 
I. The Nubian Group. 2. The Bantu Group. 

General Observations on the Race. Low intellectual posi- 
tion. Origin of negroes in the United States. 



LECTURE VIL 

THE ASIAN RACE 195 

Contents. — Physical geography of Asia. Physical traits of 
the Race, Its branches. 

I. The Sinitic Branch. Subdivisions. i. The Chinese. 

Origin and early migrations. Psychical elements. Arts. 
Religions. Philosophers. Late migrations. 2. The Thibetan 
Group. Character. Physical traits- Tribes. 3. The Indo- 
Chinese Group. Members. Character and Culture. 

II. The Sibiric Branch. Synonyms. Location. Physical 

appearance, 'i. The Tungusic Group. Members. Loca- 
tion. Character- 2. Mongolic Group. Migrations. 3. The 
Tataric Group. History. Language* Customs. 4. The 
Finnic Grou-p. Origin and migrations. Physical traits. 



12 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Boundaries of the Sibiric Peoples. The " Turanian " 
theories. 5. The Arctic Group. Members. Location. 
Physical traits. 6. The Japanese Group. Members. Loca- 
tion. History. Culture. The Koreans. 



LECTURE VIII. 

INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES 221 

Contents. — Variability of islanders and coast peoples. Phys- 
ical geography of Oceanica. Ethnographic divisions. 

I. The Negritic Stock. Subdivisions. i. The Negrito 

Group. Members. Former extension. Physical aspect. 
Culture. 2. The Papuan Group. Location. Physical 
traits. Culture and language. 3. The Melanesian Group. 
Physical traits. Habits. Languages. Ethnic affinities 
of Papuas and Melanesians. 

II. The Malayic Stock. Location. Subdivisions. Affinities 

with the Asian Race and original home. i. The Western or 
Malayan Groups. Physical traits. Character. Extension. 
Culture. Presence in Plindostan, 2. The Eastern or 
Polynesian Group. Physical traits. Migrations. Char- 
acter and culture. Easter Island. 

III. The Australic Stock. Affinities between the Aus- 
tralians and Dravidians. i. The Australian Group. Tas- 
manians and Australians. Physical traits. Culture. 2. The 
Dravidian Group. Early extension. Members, Culture. 
Languages. 



LECTURE IX. 

THE AMERICAN RACE 247 

Contents. — Peopling of America. Divisions, i. The Arctic 
Group. Members. Location. Character. 2. The North 
Atlantic Group. Tinneh, Algonkins, Iroquois, Dakotas, 
Muskokis, Caddoes, Shoshonees, etc. 3. The North Pacific 
Group. Tlinkit, Haidahs, Calif ornians, Pueblos. 4. The 



CONTENTS. 



13 



PAGE 

Mexican Group. The Aztecs or Nahuas. Other nations. 
5. The Inter-Isthmian Group. The Mayas. Their culture. 
Other tribes. 6. The South Atlantic Group. The Caribs, 
the Arawaks, the Tupis. Other tribes. 7. The South Pa- 
cific Group. The Qquichuas or Peruvians. Their culture. 
Other tribes. 



LECTURE X. 

PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS 277 

Contents. — I. Ethnographic Problems, i. The problem of 
acclimation. Various answers. Europeans in the tropics. 
Austafricans in cold climates ; in warm climates. The 
Asian race. Tolerance of the American race. Theories of 
acclimation. Conclusion. 2. The problem of amalgama- 
tion. Effect on offspring. Mingling of white and black 
races. Infertility. Mingling of colored races. Influence 
of early and present social conditions. Is amalgamation 
desirable ? As applied to white race ; to colored races. 
3. The problem of civilization. Urgency of the problem. 
Influence of civilization on savages. Failure of missionary 
efforts. Cause of the failure. Suggestions. 

II. The Destiny of Races. Extinction of races, i. The 
American race. Are the Indians dying out ? Conflicting 
statements. They are perishing. Diminution of insular 
peoples ; causes of fatality. The Austafrican race. The 
Mongolian race stationary. Wonderful growth of the 
Eurafrican race. Influence of the Semitic element. The 
future Aryo-Semitic race. 
Relation of ethnography to historical and political science. 

INDEX OF AUTHORS 301 

INDEX OF SUBJECTS 309 



MAPS, SCHEMES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

Figs. I and 2. Long and short skulls 21 

Fig. 3. Lines of sutures in the skull 22 

Fig. 4. Lines and angles of skull measurements. 25 

Fig. 5. Cross-sections of hairs 32 

Fig. 6. Primary arrow-release 34 

Fig. 7. Mediterranean arrow-release 34 

Fig. 8. Mongolian arrow-release 35 



Scheme of Principal Physical Elements 49 

Scheme of Geologic Time during the Age of Man in the Eastern 

Hemisphere 96 

General Ethnographic Scheme 99 

Scheme of the Eurafrican Race : South Mediterranean Branch. 104 
Scheme of the Eurafrican Race : North Mediterranean Branch. 140 

Scheme of Aryac Migration '. 1 53 

Scheme of the Austafrican Race 174 

Scheme of the Asian Race 194 

Scheme of Insular and Littoral Peoples 220 



- Outlines of the Eastern Hemisphere in the Early Quarternary.. 88 

c Ethnic Chart of the Eurafrican Race . . - 112 

. Ethnic Chart of Africa 176 

t Ethnic Chart of Eurasia and Asia 198 

^ Ethnic Chart of Hindostan 244 

» Indian Tribes of the United States 256 

(IS) 



LECTURES ON ETHNOGRAPHY. 



LECTURE I. 



THE PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Contents. — Differences and resemblances in individuals and races 
the basis of Ethnography. The Bones. Craniology. Its limited 
value. Long and short skulls. Sutures. Incabone. The orbital 
index. The nasal index. The maxillary and facial angles. The 
cranial capacity. The teeth. The iliac bones. Length of the 
arms. The flattened tibia. The projecting heel. The heart 
line. The Color. Its extent ; cause ; scale of colors. Color of 
the eyes. The Hair. Shape in cross section ; abundance. The 
muscular structure ; anomalies in ; muscular habits ; arrow re- 
leases. Steatopygy. Stature and proportion ; the " canon of pro- 
portion ; " special senses ; the color sense. Ethnic relations of 
the sexes. Correlation of physical traits to vital powers. Causes 
of the fixation of ethnic traits. Climate ; food supply ; natural 
selection; conscious selection; the physical ideal; sexual prefer- 
ence; abhorrence of incest; exogamous marriages. Causes of 
variation in types. The mingling of races. Physical criteria of 
racial superiority. Review of physical elements. 

That no two persons are identical in appearance is 
such a truism that we are apt to overlook its signifi- 
cance. The parent can rarely be recognized from 
2 (17) 



l8 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

the traits of the child, the brother from those of the 
sister, the family from its members. 

On the other hand, the individual peculiarities be- 
come lost in those of the race. It is a common state- 
ment that to our eyes all Chinamen look alike, or that 
one cannot distinguish an Indian '' buck '' from a 
" squaw/' Yet you recognize very well the one as a 
Chinaman, the other as an Indian. The traits of the 
race thus overslaugh the variable characters of the 
family, the sex or the individual, and maintain them- 
selves uniform and unalterable in the pure blood of 
the stock through all experience. c 

This fact is the corner-stone of the science of Eth- 
nography, whose aim is to study the differences, phys- 
ical and mental, between men in masses, and ascertain 
which of these differences are least variable and hence 
of most value in classifying the human species into its 
several natural varieties or types. 

In daily life and current literature the existence of 
such varieties is fully recognized. The European and 
African, or White and Black races, are those most 
familiar to us ; but the American Indian and the Mon- 
golian are not rare, and are recognized also as distinct 
from each other and ourselves. These common terms 
for the races are not quite accurate ; but they illustrate 
a tendency to identify the most prominent types of the 
species with the great continental areas, and in this I 
shall show that the popular judgment is in accord with 
scientific reasoning. 

If an ordinary observer were asked what' the traits 



CRANIOLOGY. I9 

are which fix the racial type in his mind, he would 
certainly omit many which are highly esteemed by the 
man of science. He would have nothing to say, for 
instance, about the internal structures or organs, be- 
cause they are not visible ; but in approaching the sub- 
ject from a scientific direction, we must lay most 
stress upon these, as their peculiarities decide the ex- 
ternal traits which strike the eye. 

Nor does the casual observer note the mental or 
physical differences which exist between the races 
whom he recognizes ; yet these are not less perma- 
nent and not less important than those which concern 
the physical economy only. In both these directions 
the student of ethnography as a science must pursue 
careful researches. 

In the present lecture I shall pass in review the 
physical elements held to be most weighty in the dis- 
crimination of racial types ; and, first, those relating to 

The Bones. — Most important are the measurements 
of the skull, that science called craniology, or crani- 
ometry. 

Ethnologists who are merely anatomists have made 
too much of this science. They have applied it to the 
exclusion of other elements, and have given it a prom- 
inence which it does not deserve. The shape of the 
skull is no distinction of race in the individual ; only in 
the mass, in the average of large numbers, has it im- 
portance. Even here its value is not racial. Within 
the limits of the same people, as among the Slavoni- 
ans, for example, the most different skulls are found, 



20 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

and even the pure-blood natives of some small islands 
in the Pacific Ocean present widely various forms.* 

Experiments on the lower animals prove that the 
skull is easily moulded by trifling causes. Darwin 
found that he could produce long, or short, or non- 
symmetrical skulls in rabbits by training.f The shape 
also bears a relation to stature. As a general rule 
short men have short or rounded heads, tall men have 
long heads. The longest skulled nation in Europe 
are the Norwegians, who are also the tallest; the 
roundest are the Auvergnats, who, of all the Euro- 
pean whites, are the shortest. 

• Nevertheless, employed cautiously, in large aver- 
ages, and with a careful regard for all the other ethnic 
elements, the measurements of the skull are extremely 
useful as accessory data of comparison. 

* The cranial indices on one of these islands varied from 70 to 83. 
The excessive claims of craniometry have been severely but justly 
rebuked by Moriz W^agner, in his thoughtful work, Die Entstehtuig 
der Arten dicrch rdttmliche Sondcrung^^. 528, sq. (Basel, 1889), ^^^ 
more forcibly censured by VV^aitz, Arithropologie der Naturvolker, Bd. 
I., ss. 84-88. The French school of anthropologists have been es- 
pecially one-sided in their devotion to this one element of the science. 
Among other great naturalists, Charles Darwin was careful to point 
out the variability of the skull as an anatomical part. (The Descent 
of Man ^ p. 26.) 

t Darwin, The Descejtt of Man^ p. 56. The anatomical cause of 
elongated or short skulls is the earlier union of either the transverse 
or longitudinal sutures, thus forcing the growth to be in the other 
direction. (L. Holden, Human Osteology^ p. 127). Of course, this 
begins in foetal life ; and Pruner Bey had observed children with 
different forms of the skull born of the same mother. (Oscar Pes- 
chel, Volkerknnde^ "^.^d). 



SHAPE OF SKULL. 



21 



Some craniologists have run up these measurements 
to more than a hundred ; but those worth mentioning 
in this connection are but few. There is, first, the 
proportion which the length of the head has to its 
breadth. This makes the distinction between long, 
medium and broad skulls, '' dolicho-cephalic,'' '' meso- 
cephalic,'' and '' brachy-cephalic." In the medium 
skull the transverse bears to the longitudinal diameter 
the proportion of about 80:100. The proportion 
75:100 would make quite a long skull, and 85:100 
quite a broad skull, the extreme variations not exceed- 
ing 70:100 — 90:100. (Figs. I and 2.) 





Figs, i and 2. — Long and Sliort Skulls. 

The Asiatic race or typical Mongolians are gener- 
ally brachy-cephalic, the Eskimos and African negroes 
dohcho-cephalic ; while the whites of Europe and 
American Indians present great diversity. 

The lengthening of the skull may be anteriorly or 
posteriorly, and this is probably more significant of 
brain power than its width. In the black race the 
lengthening is occipital, that is at the rear, indicating 
a preponderance of the lower mental po^yers. 



22 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

The height of the skull is another measurement 
which is much respected by craniologists ; but they 
are far from agreed as to the points from which the 
lines shall be drawn, so that it is difficult to compare 
their results/^ The '' sutures," or lines of union be- 
tween the several bones of the skull, present indica- 
tions of great value. In the low^er races they arc 
much simpler than in the higher, and they become 






% 




Fig. 3. — Lines of Sutures in the Skull. 

obliterated earlier in life; the bones of the skull thus 
uniting into a compact mass and preventing further 
expansion of the cavity occupied by the brain. f (Fig. 
3.) Occasionally small separated bones are found in 
these sutures, more frequently in some races than in 

* See Dr. Emil Schmidt, AntJwopologische Methoden^ s. 221. This 
is a valuable handbook for the student of anthropology. 

t An interesting study of this subject has been made by Dr. F. C. 
Ribbe, VOrdre d"* Obliteration des Sutu7'es du Cra^te dans les Races 
Humaines (Paris, 1885). 



SHAPE OF THE EYES. 23 

others. One of these, toward the back of the head, 
occurs so constantly in certain American tribes that it 
has been named the '' Inca bone." "^^ 

In many savage tribes there are artificial deforma- 
tions of the skull, which render it useless as a means 
of comparison. The " Flathead Indians '' are an ex- 
ample, and many Peruvian skulls are thus pressed out 
of shape. It is singular that this violence to such an 
important organ does not seem to be attended with 
any injurious result on the intellectual powers. 

The orbit of the eyes is another feature which varies 
in races. The proportion of the short to the long 
diameter furnishes what is known as the '' orbital in- 
dex." The ^Mongolians present nearest a circular 

orbit, the proportion being sometimes 93:100; while 
the lowest range has been found in skulls from ancient 
French cemeteries, presenting an index of 61 : 100. 
The latter are technically called '' microsemes ; " the 
former '' megasemes," while the mean are '' meso- 
semes.^f 

In a similar manner the aperture of the nostrils 
varies and constitutes quite an important element of 
comparison known as the '' nasal index." Where this 
aperture is narrow, the nose is thin and prominent ; 

* For a careful paper on this point see Dr. Washington Matthews, 
in the American Anthropologist^ Oct., 1889. 
t Instead of these terms the Germans use : 
' Chamaekonch = orbital index below 80 

Mesokonch = " " 80-85. 

Hypsikonch = " " above 85. 

The French expressions are preferable. 



24 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

when broad, the nose is large and flat. The former 
are '' leptorhinian/'' the latter '' platyrhinian/' while 
the medium size is '' mesorhinian/' This division co- 
incides closely with that of the chief races. Almost 
all the white race are leptorhinian, the negroes platyr- 
hinian, the true Asiatics mesorhinian. The Eskimos 
have the narrowest nasal aperture, the Bushmen the 
widest. 

The projection of the maxillaries, or upper and 
lower jaws, beyond the line of the face, is a highly 
significant trait. When well marked it forms the 
*^ prognathic," when slight the " orthognathic " type. 
It is much more observable in the black than in the 
white race, and is more pronounced in the old than in 
the young. It is considered to correspond to a 
stronger development of the merely animal instincts. 

The relation of the lower to the upper part of the 
head is measured mainly by two angles, the one the 
'^ maxillary," the other the ^' facial " angle. The 
former is the angle subtended by lines drawn froni the 
most projecting portion of the maxillaries to the most 
prominent points of the forehead above and the chin 
below. (The angle M G S in the accompanying dia- 
gram, Fig. 4.) This supplies data for two important 
elements, the prognathism and the prominence of the 
chin. The latter is an essential feature of man. 
None of the lower animals possesses a true chin, while 
man is never without one. The more acute the max- 
illary angle, the less of chin is there, and the more 
prognathic the subject. The averages run as follows: 



THE FACIAL INDEX. 



25 



The European white 160^. 

The African negro . 140^. 

The Orang-outang 11 o^. 




Fig. 4. Lines and angles of skull measurement. 



The facial angle is that subtended by the same line, 
from the most prominent point of the upper jaw to 
the most prominent part of the forehead, and a second 
line drawn horizontally through the center of the aper- 
ture of the ear. (The lines M G, D N.) It ex- 
presses the relative prominence of the forehead and 
capacity of the anterior portion of the brain. The 



26 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

more acute this angle, the lower is the brain capacity. 
The following are its averages : 

The European white .... 8o^-. 

The African negro .... 70^. to 75P. 

The Orang-outang .... 40^. 
The amount of brain matter contained in a skull is 
called its '' cerebral or cranial capacity.'' This is 
proved by investigation to average less in the dark 
than in the light races, and in the same race less in the 
female than in the male sex. Estimated in cubic cen- 
timetres the extremes are about 1250 cub. cent, in the 
Australians and Bushmen to 1600 cub. cent, in well- 
developed Europeans, We cannot regard this meas- 
urement as a constant exponent of intellectual power, 
as many men with small brains have possessed fine 
intellects ; but as a general feature it certainly is indi- 
cative of brain weight, and therefore of relative intel- 
ligence. The average human brain weighs 48 ounces, 
while that of a large gorilla is not over 20 ounces. 

The teeth offer several points of difference in races. 
In the negro they are unusually white and strong, and 
in nearly all the black people (Australians, Soudanese, 
Melanesians, etc.), the 'Svisdom teeth'' are generally 
furnished with three separate fangs, and are sound, 
while among whites they have only two fangs, and 
decay early. The most ancient jaws exhumed in 
Europe present the former character. The promi- 
nence of the canine teeth is a peculiarity of some 
tribes, while in others the canines are not conical, but 
resemble the incisors. 



THE TEETH. 2^ 

The size of the teeth has also been asserted to be 
an index of race, and an effort has been made to class- 
ify peoples into small-toothed (microdonts), medium- 
toothed (mesodonts), and large-toothed (mega- 
donts).''' But this scheme includes in the first men- 
tioned class the Polynesians with the Europeans, and 
in the second the African negro with the Chinese, 
which looks as if the plan has little value. 

The milk-teeth have a much closer resemblance to 
those of the apes than the second dentition, and some 
naturalists have thought that the forms of the second 
teeth point often to reversion and are characteristic 
of races, but this has not been proved. 

The teeth and the period of dentition have been 
studied in man with the view to show that certain 
races more than others retain the dental forms of the 
lower animals, but the latest investigations go rather 
to overthrow than to support these theories.f 

Turning to the -other bones of the skeleton, I shall 
note a few peculiarities said to be ethnic. The skel- 
eton of a negro usually presents iliac bones more ver- 
tical than those of a white man, and the basin is nar- 
rower. This peculiarity is measured by what is called 

* W. H. Flower, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute^ Vol. 
XIV., p. 183. 

t The '' Lemurian reversion " in human dentition brought forward 
some years ago as a racial indication by Professor E. D. Cope has 
been largely negatived by the later researches of Dr. Harrison Allen. 
^QQ Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society^ 1890; also, 
Virchow, Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft^ 1886, s. 
400, sq. 



28 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

the '' pelvic index," by which is meant the ratio of the 
transverse to the longitudinal diameter. The average 
ratio is about 90 or 95 to 100. 

Another trait of a lower osteology is the unusual 
length of the arms. This is found to depend upon the 
relative elongation of the fore-arm and its principal 
bones, the radius and ulna. From comparisons which 
have been instituted between the negro and the white, 
it appears that the proportionate length of their arms 
is as 78 to ^2. The long arms are characteristic of 
the higher apes and the unripe fetus, and belong, 
therefore, to a lower phase of development than that 
reached by the white race. 

There is also a peculiarity among many lower peo- 
ples in the shape of the shin-bone or tibia. Usually 
when cut in cross-section, the ends present a triangu- 
lar surface ; but in certain tribes, and in some ancient 
remains from the caves, the cross-section is elliptical, 
showing that the tibia has been flattened (platycnemic). 
This was long regarded as a sign of ethnic inferiority, 
but of late years the opinion of anatomists has under- 
gone a change, and they attribute it to the special use 
of some of the muscles of the leg. 

The heel-bone, the os calcis or calcaneum, is cur- 
rently believed to be longer and project further back- 
ward in the negro than in the white man. There is 
no doubt of the projection of the heel, and it is typi- 
cal of the true negro race, but it does not seem to be 
owing to the size of the bone, as an examination of a 
series of calcanea in both races proves. The length- 



COLOR IN RACES. 2g 

ening is apparent only, and is due to the smallness of 
the calf and the slenderness of the main tendon, the 
'' tendon of Achilles," immediately above the heel.''' 

With the pithecoid forms of the bones is often as- 
sociated another simian mark. The line in the hand 
known to chiromancy as the '' heart '' line, in all races 
but the negro ceases at the base of the middle finger, 
but in his race, as in the ape, it often extends quite 
across the palm. 

The bones offer the most enduring, but not the most 
obvious distinctions of races. The latter are unques- 
tionably those presented by 

The Color. — This it is which first strikes the eye, 
and from which the most familiar names of the types 
have been drawn. The black and white, the yellow, 
the red and the brown races, are terms far older than 
the science of ethnography, and have always been 
employed in its terminology. 

Why it is that these different hues should indelibly 
mark whole races, is not entirely explained. The 
pigment or coloring matter of the skin is deposited 
from the capillaries on the surface of the derm's or 
true skin, and beneath the epidermis or scarf skin.f I 
have seen a negro so badly scalded that the latter was 
detached in large fragments, and with it came most of 
his color, leaving the spot a dirty light brown. 

* L. Holden, Human Osteology^ pp. i88, 189. 

t More accurately, the pigment cells in man are in the deeper layer 
of the rete mticositm Malpighii. Cf. A. Kolliker, " Ueber die Entste- 
hung des Pigments in den Oberhautgebilden," in the Zeitsclu^ift fiir 
wissensch. Zodlogie, Bd. XLV., s. 713 sq. 



30 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

The coloration of the negro, however, extends much 
beyond the skin. It is found in a less degree on all 
his mucous membrane, in his muscles, and even in 
the pia mater and the grey substance of his brain. 

The effort has been made to measure the colors of 
different peoples by a color scale. One such was de- 
vised by Broca, presenting over thirty shades, and 
another by Dr. Radde, in Germany ; but on long 
journeys, or as furnished by different manufacturers, 
these scales undergo changes in the shades, so that 
they have not proved of the value anticipated. 

As to the physiological cause of color, you know that 
the direct action of the sun on the skin is to stimu- 
late the capillary action, and lead to an increased 
deposit of pigment, which we call '' tan.'' This 
pigment is largely carbon, a chemical element, princi- 
pally excreted by the lungs in the form of carbonic 
oxide. When from any cause, such as a peculiar diet, 
or a congenital disproportion of lungs to liver, the 
carbonic oxide is less rapidly thrown off by the former 
organs, there will be an increased tendency to pig- 
mentary deposit on the skin. This is visibly the fact 
in the African blacks, whose livers are larger in pro- 
portion to their lungs than in any other race.* 

* This was the result of numerous autopsies during the American 
civil war. Some dissections reported by M. T. Chudzinski seem to 
show that the liver of the negro is smaller than that of the white. 
{Revice d^ AntJwopologie^ 1887, P- 275). But its relative size to the 
lungs is the question at issue. The comparative splanchnology of 
the different races has yet to be worked out. 



COLORS OF SKIN AND EYES. 3I 

While all the truly black tribes dwell in or near the 
tropics, all the arctic dwellers are dark, as the Lapps, 
Samoyeds and Eskimos ; therefore, it is not climate 
alone which has to do with the change. The Ameri- 
cans differ little in color among themselves from what 
part soever of the continent they come, and the Mon- 
golians, though many have lived time immemorial in 
the cold and temperate zone, are never really white 
when of unmixed descent. 

A practical scale for the colors of the skin is the 
following : 

( I. Black. 
Dark. -< 2. Dark brown, reddish undertone. 
( 3. Dark brown, yellowish undertone. 

TIT J- i I- Reddish. 

( 2. Yellowish (olive). 

{I. White, brown undertone (grayish). 
2. " yellow undertone. 
3. " rosy undertone. 

The color of the eyes should next have attention. 
Their hue is very characteristic of races and of fam- 
ilies. Light eyes with dark skins are rare exceptions. 
Other things equal, they are lighter in men than in 
women. Extensive statistics have been collected in 
Europe to ascertain the prevalence of certain colors, 
and instructive results have been obtained.'*' The di- 
vision usually adopted is into dark and light eyes. 

* Dr. John Beddoe in England, Topinard in France, and Virchow 
in Germany, have been especially active in obtaining these statistics. 



32 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Dark eyes. < 



Black. 
Brown. 



{ I. Light brown (hazel). 
Light eyes. ■< 2. Gray. 



] 



3. Blue. 



The eye must be examined at some little distance 
so as to catch the total effect. 

Next in the order of prominence is 

The Hair. — Indeed, Haeckel and others have based 
upon its character the main divisions of mankind. 
That of some races is straight, of others more or less 
curled. This difference depends upon the shape of the 
hairs in cross-section. The more closely they assimi- 
late true cylinders, the straighter they hang ; while the 
flatter they are, the more they approach the appearance 
of wool. (Fig. 5.) The variation of the two diameters 





Fig. 5. — Cross Sections of Llairs. 

(transverse and longitudinal) is from 25 : 100 to 90 : 100. 
The straightest is found among the Malayans and 
Mongolians ; the wooliest among the Hottentots, Pa- 
puas and African negroes. The white race is inter- 
mediate, with curly or wavy hair. It is noteworthy 
that all woolly-haired peoples have also long, narrow 
heads and protruding jaws. 

The amount of hair on the face and body is also a 



MUSCULAR ANOMALIES. 33 

point of some moment. As a rule, the American and 
Mongolian peoples have little, the Europeans and 
Australians abundance. Crossing of races seems to 
strengthen its growth, and the Ainos of the Japanese 
Archipelago, a mixed people, are probably the hairiest 
of the species. The strongest growth on the head is 
seen among the Cafusos of Brazil, a hybrid of the In- 
dian and negro. 

The Mitsciilar Stnictiire. — The development of the 
muscular structure offers notable differences in the 
various races. The blacks, both in Africa and else- 
where, have the gastrocnemii or calf muscles of the 
leg very slightly developed ; while in both them and 
the Mongolians the facial muscles have their fibres 
more closely interwoven than the whites, thus pre- 
venting an equal mobility of facial expression. 

The anomalies of the muscular structure seem about 
as frequent in one race as in another. The most of 
them are regressive, imitating the muscles of the apes, 
monkeys, and lower mammals. Indeed, a learned 
anatomist has said that the abnormal anatomy of the 
muscles supplies all the gaps which separate man 
from the higher apes, as all the simian characteristics 
reappear from time to time in his structure."^ 

Certain motions or positions, such as I may call 
'^ muscular habits,'' are characteristic of extensive 
groups of tribes. The method of resting is one such. 
The Japanese squats on his hams, the Australian 
stands on one leg, supporting himself by a spear or 
* L. Testut, in U Homme ^ 1884, p. 377. 



34 



PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 



pole, and so on. The methods of arrow-release have 
been profitably studied by Professor E. S. Morse. 
He finds them so characteristic that he classifies them 




Fig. 6. — Primary Arrow-Release. 

ethnographically, with reference to savagery and civili- 
zation, and locality. The three most important are the 
primary, the Mediterranean, and the Mongolian re- 




FiG. 7. — Mediterranean Arrow-Release. 

leases. The first is that of many savage tribes, the 
second was practiced principally by the white race, the 
last by the Mongolians and their neighbors. (Figs. 6, 
7, 8.) The last two are the most effective, and thus 
gave superiority in combat. 



HEIGHT AND SYMMETRY. 



35 



Allied to muscular variation are the peculiar de- 
posits of fatty tissue in certain portions of the system. 
The Hottentots are remarkable for the prominence 
of the gluteal region, imparting to their figure a 
singular projection posteriorly. It is called '' stea- 
topygy/' and appears to have been, in part at least, a 
cultivated deformity, regarded among them as a 




Fig. 8. — Mongolian Arrow-Release. 



beauty. The thick lips of the negro, and the long and 
pendent breasts of the Australian women, are other ex- 
amples of ethnic hypertrophies. 

Stature and Proportion.— Difierencts in stature are 
tribal, but not racial. The smallest peoples known, 
the Negrillos, the Aetas, the Lapps, belong to different 
races, as do the tallest, the Patagonians, the Polyne- 
sians, the Anglo-Americans. The researches of Paolo 
Riccardi and others prove that stature is correlated 
with nutrition ; the better the food, other things being 



36 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

equal, the taller the men.''^' It is also markedly 
hereditary ; the stature of children will average that of 
their parents. 

What is called the ^' canon of proportions '' of the 
human body varies with the race and the nation. 
There is indeed an ideal, an artistic canon, which the 
sculptor or the painter seeks to body forth in his 
productions ; and this seems in close conformity with 
an extensive average of the proportions of the highest 
peoples ; but it is never found in individuals, and it is 
essentially unlike in man and woman, in youth and 
age, in the blonde and brunette. f Nor is the ideal of 
the artist also that which is consonant with the great- 
est muscular development or highest powers of en- 
durance. 

Special Senses, — It cannot be said that the different 
races display positive discrepancies in the special 
senses. Their development appears to depend on 
cultivation, and all races respond equally to equal 
training. There is, to be sure, a higher musical sense 
in the native African than in the native American, but 
quite as much difference is seen between European 
nations. 

Much has been written of the color-sense as a trait 
of nations. It has been said that some tribes, some 
races, appreciate hues more keenly than others ; that 
within historic times marked gains in this respect are 

* In Archivio per V A 7itr apologia., 1885. 

t See Topinard, ** Le Canon des Proportions du Corps de 
r Homme Europeen," in Revue d'' Anthropologies 1889, p. 392. 



MEN AND WOMEN. 37 

noticeable. I think these statements are incorrect. 
The savage of any race distinguishes precisely the dif- 
ference of hues when it is to his material interest so to 
do ; but concerns himself not at all about colors which 
have no efifect on his life. He is well acquainted with 
the colors of the animals he hunts, and has a word for 
every shade of hue. This proves that his color-sense 
is as acute as that of civihzed people, and merely lacks 
specific training. 

Ethnic Relations of the Sexes. — There are some 
curious facts in reference to the relative position of the 
sexes in different peoples. As a rule the expression 
of sex in form and feature is less in the lower than in 
the higher races. Travelers frequently refer to the 
difficulty of distinguishing the men from the women 
among the American Indians or the Chinese. Inves- 
tigate the fact, and you will find that it is not that the 
women are less feminine in appearance, but the men 
less masculine. In other words, the expression of sex 
in such peoples is less in man than in woman. This 
seems to be true also of the highest ideals of man- 
hood in artistic conception. The Greek Apollo, the 
traditional Christ, present a feminine type of the male. 
This was carried to its excess in the Greek Hermaph- 
rodite. 

The reason for this approximation to the female in 
art-ideals is probably the zoological fact that the law 
of beauty in the human species is the reverse of that 
in all the other higher mammals, the female sex with 
us being the handsomer. This also becomes more 



38 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

evident in the comparison of the best developed 
peoples. 

On the other hand, the muscular force of the sexes 
presents the greatest contrast in nations of the highest 
culture. The average European woman of twenty-five 
or thirty has one-third less muscular power than the 
average European man. But among the Afghans, the 
Patagonians, the Druses and other tribes, the women 
are as tall and as strong as the men ; and in Siam, As- 
hanti, Ancient Gaul, and elsewhere, not only the field- 
laborers but the soldiers were principally women, 
selected because of their greater physical force and 
courage. 

As the value of mere brute force in a social organi- 
zation lessens in comparison to mental powers, the 
condition of woman improves, and her faculties find 
appropriate play. Her brain capacity, though abso- 
lutely less, is relatively more than man's. That is, the 
difference of the whole average weight of woman and 
man is greater in proportion than the difference of their 
brain weights. 

It is believed, also, that the viability or prospect of 
life in woman is greater in higher than in lower peo- 
ples, and generally greater than in men. European 
statistics show that 106 boys are born to 100 girls: 
but at twelve years of age the sexes are equal, the 
boys suffering a greater mortality. At eighty years 
of age, there are nearly three women living to one 
man, indicating a superior longevity. 

Correlation of Physical Traits to Vital Pozvers. — 



DISEASE IN RACES. 39 

The physical traits are correlated to the physiolog- 
ical functions in such a manner as profoundly to in- 
fluence the destiny of nations. They enable or dis- 
able man with reference to the climatic and other 
conditions of his surroundings. For instance, certain 
races can support given temperature better than 
others. The intense heat and humidity of Central 
Africa or Southern India are destructive to the pure 
whites, while the climate north of the fortieth parallel 
soon exterminates the blacks. The food on which 
the Australian thrives destroys the digestive powers 
of the European. Exemption and liability to diseases 
differ noticeably in races. The white race is more 
liable to yellow fever, malarial diseases, syphilis, scar- 
let fever and sunstroke; the colored races to measles, 
tuberculosis, leprosy, elephantiasis, and pneumonia. 

Indeed, from the physical point of view, the pure 
white is weaker than the dark races, worse prepared 
for the combat of life, with inferior viability. This 
Jias been shown by the careful researches of statistic- 
ians."^' But in the white this is more than compensated 
by the development of the nervous system and the 
intellectual power. He can bear greater mental strain 
than any other race, and the activity of his mind sup- 
plies him with means to overcome the inferiority of 
his body, and thus places him at the head of the whole 
species. 

* An instructive article on this subject is that of Alphonse de Can- 
dolle, " Les Types brun et blond au point de vue de la Sante," in the 
Revue a' Anthropologies May, 1887. 



40 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

The tolerance of disease is an obscure but momen- 
tous element in the comparison of races. It is 
almost a proverb among the Spanish-American phy- 
sicians that '' when an Indian falls sick, he dies/' The 
greater longevity of the European peoples is due to 
their ability to support disease long and frequently, 
v^ithout succumbing to it. On the other hand, surgical 
injuries, wounds and cuts, appear to heal more rapidly 
among savage peoples.''' It is clear that in civilized 
conditions this is less important than tolerance. 

The Causes of the Fixation of Ethnic Traits. — 
These causes are mainly related to climate and the 
food-supply. The former embraces the questions of 
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure (alti- 
tude), malarial or zymotic poisons, and the like. All 
these bear directly upon the relative activity of the 
great physiological organs, the lungs, heart, liver, skin 
and kidneys, and to their action we must undoubtedly 
turn for the origin of the traits I have named. On the 
food-supply, liquid and solid, whether mainly animal, 
fish or vegetable, whether abundant or scanty, whether 
rich in phosphates and nitrogenous constituents or the 
reverse, depend the condition of the digestive organs, 
the nutrition of the individual, and the development 
of numerous physical idiosyncrasies. Nutrition con- 



* A number of striking instances have been collected by Waitz, 
Anth7'opologie der Nahirvolker^ Bd. I.., s. T41. Dr. Max Bartels, in 
the Zeitschrift filr Ethnologie^ 1888, s. 183, establishes this rule : 
" The higher the race, the less the tolerance of surgical disease ; and 
in the same race, the lower the culture, the greater the tolerance." ' 



NATURAL AND CONSCIOUS SELECTION. 4I 

trols the direction of organic development, and it is 
essentially on arrested or imperfect, in contrast to 
completed development, that the differences of races 
depend. 

These are the physiological and generally unavoid- 
able influences which went to the fixation of racial 
types. They are those which placed early man under 
the dominion of natural, unconscious evolution, like 
all the lower animals. To them may be added natural 
selection from accidental variations becoming perma- 
nent when proving of value in the struggle for exist- 
ence, as shown in the black hue of equatorial tribes, 
special muscular development, etc. 

But I do not look on these as the main agents in the 
fixation of special traits. No doubt such agencies pri- 
marily evolved them, but their cultivation and perpe- 
tuation were distinctly owing to conscious selection in 
early man. Our species is largely outside the general 
laws of organic evolution, and that by virtue of the 
self-consciousness which is the privilege of it alone 
among organized beings. 

This conscious selection was apphed in two most 
potent directions, the one to maintaining the physical 
ideal, the other toward sexual preference. 

As soon as the purely physical influences mentioned 
had impressed a tendency toward a certain type on the 
early community, this was recognized, cultivated and 
deepened by man's conscious endeavors. Every race, 
when free from external influence, assigns to its high- 
est ideal of manly or womanly beauty its special racial 



42 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

traits, and seeks to develop these to the utmost. Afri- 
can travelers tell us that the negroes of the Soudan 
look with loathing on the white skin of the European ; 
and in ancient Mexico when children were born of a 
very light color, as occasionally happened, they were 
put to death. On the other hand the earliest records 
of the white race exalt especially the element of white- 
ness. The writer of the Song of Solomon celebrates 
his bride as '' fairest among women,'' with a neck 
*' like a tower of ivory ; '' ^ and one of the oldest of 
Irish hero-tales, the Wooing of Emer, chants the 
praises of '' Tara, the whitest of maidens. ''f Though 
both Greeks and Egyptians were of the dark type of 
the Mediterranean peoples, their noblest gods, Apollo 
and Osiris, were represented '' fair in hue, and with 
light or golden hair. "J 

The persistent admiration of an ideal leads to its 
constant cultivation by careful preservation and sexual 
selection. Thus the peoples who have little hair on 
the face and body, as most Chinese and American In- 
dians, usually do not like any, and carefully extirpate 
it. The negroes prefer a flat nose, and a child which 
develops one of a pointed type has it artificially flat- 
tened. In Melanesia if a child is born of a lighter hue 
than is approved by the village, it is assiduously held 
over the smoke of a fire in order to blacken it. The 

* Solomoii's Song^ Chap. VII., v. 4, etc. 

t See " The W^ooing of Eme'r," translated by Kimo Meyer, in The 
Archceological Journal^ Vol. I., p. 68 sq. 

X C. P. Tiele, History of the Egyptian Religion^ pp. 93, 95, etc. 



THE AVERSION TO INCEST. 43 

custom of destroying infants markedly aberrant from 
the national type is nigh universal in primitive life. 
Such usages served to j&x and perpetuate the racial 
traits. 

A yet more powerful factor was sexual preference. 
This worked in a variety of ways. It is well known to 
stock breeders that the closer animals are bred in-and- 
in, that is, the nearer the relationship of father and 
mother, the more prominently the traits of the parents 
appear in their children and become fixed in the breed. 
It is evident that in the earliest epoch of the human 
family, the closest inter-breeding must have prevailed 
without restriction, as it does in every species of the 
lower animals. By its influences the racial traits were 
rapidly strengthened and indelibly impressed. This, 
however, was long before the dawn of history, for it is 
a most remarkable fact that never in historic times has 
a tribe been known that allowed incestuous relations, 
unless as in ancient Egypt and Persia, for a sacrificial 
or ceremonial purpose. The lowest Australians, the 
degraded Utes, look with horror on the union of 
brother and sister. The general principle of marriage 
in savage races is that of '' exogamy,'' marriage out- 
side the clan or family, the latter being counted in the 
female line only. Thi^. strange but universal abhor- 
rence has been explained by Darwin as primarily the 
result of sexual indifference arising between members 
of the same household, and the high zest of novelty in 
that appetite. Whatever the cause, the consequences 
will easily be seen. The racial traits once fixed in the 



44 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

period before this abhorrence arose would remain 
largely stationary afterwards, and by exogamous mar- 
riages would be rendered uniform over a wide area. 

This form of conscious selection has properly been 
rated as one of the prime factors in the problem of 
race differentiation."^ The apparently miscellaneous 
and violent union of the sexes in savage tribes is in 
fact governed by the most stringent traditional laws, 
and their confused cohabitations are so only to the 
mind of the European observer, not to the tribal con- 
science.f 

Catises of Variation in Types.- — The physical type 
once fixed by the influences just mentioned remains 
very stable ; yet may fall under the influence of condi- 
tions which will greatly modify it. 

Changes in climatic surroundings and of the food 
supply exert a visible effect'. These generally come 
about by migration, though geologic action has occa- 
sionally completely altered the climate of a given lo- 
cality, as at the glacial epoch, which change would 
have the same effect as migration. 

How far migration may alter race-types after many 
generations is not yet defined. The Spanish-Amer- 
ican of pure white blood, whose ancestors have lived 

* The most valuable study upon it is that by the late Moriz 
Wagner, printed in his volume Die Entstehuitg der Arten du7'ch 
rdumliche Sondertuig (Basel, 1889). 

t Some excellent remarks on this subject are offered by Elie 
Reclus, in his discussion of marriage among the Australians, in 
Revue </' Anthropologic^ 1887, p. 20, sq. 



CAUSES OF VARIATION. 45 

for three centuries in tropical America, the citizen of 
the United States who traces his genealogy to the 
passengers in the Mayflower or the Welcome, have 
departed extremely little from the standard of the An- 
dalusian or the Englishman of to-day, though the 
contrary is often asserted by those who have not per- 
sonally studied the variants in the countries compared. 
Conditions of climate and food materially impress the 
individual, but not the race. The Greeks of Nubia 
are as dark as Nubians, but let their children return to 
Greece and the Nubian hue is lost. This is a general 
truth and holds good of all the slight impressions made 
upon pure races by unaccustomed environments. 

Another cause of variation is the recurrence to 
remote ancestral traits, or the appearance of what 
seem merely accidental variations, which may be per- 
petuated. It is not very unusual in pure African 
negroes and Chinese to observe instances of reddish 
hair and gray or brown eyes. 

Those peculiar congenital conditions known as al- 
binism and melanism may be frequent and are un- 
questionably transmissible by descent."^ 

The Mingling of Races. — But the mightiest cause 
in the change of types is intermarriage between races, 
what the French call mctissage. This has taken place 
from distantly remote epochs, especially along the lines 
where two races come into contact. In such regions 

* On the interesting questions of the recurrence of red hair and 
albinos in various races, consult Richard Andree, Ethnographische 
Parallelen iind Ve7'gleiche^ ss. 238, 261. (Neue Folge, Leipzig, 1889). 



46 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

we always find numerous mixed breeds, leading to a 
shading of one race into another by imperceptible 
degrees. 

The widespread custom of exogamous marriage 
fostered the blending of types, and it was greatly 
increased in early days by the institution of human 
slavery, the habit of selling captives taken in war, the 
purchase of wives and concubines, and the rule in 
early conquest that the men of the conquered were 
killed or sent off, and the women retained as the spoils 
of the victors. In all ages man has been migratory, 
and very remote relics of his arts show that war and 
commerce led to extensive intermixture of races long 
before history took up the thread of his wanderings. 

It is noticeable, however, that these prolonged in- 
terminglings have not produced another race. The 
nearest approach to it is in the Australians, but these 
do not refute my statement as we shall see later. 
Many ethnologists have indeed classed the mixed types 
as separate races, running the number of the sub- 
species of the genus homo up to thirty or forty. But 
this was hasty generalization. 

I would impress upon you this fact, that since the 
intermingling of two races does not produce a third 
race, it is not likely that any of the existing races arose 
from a fusion of two others. The result of observation 
shows that after two or three generations the ten- 
dency in mixed breeds is to recur to one or the other 
of the original stocks, not to establish a different 
variety. 



HIGH AND LOW RACES. 47 

Were it not for such constant crossings, we have 
reason to beHeve that the race types would resist all 
environment and retain their traits under all known 
conditions. It is only where the element of metissage 
prominently enters that we are unable to assign indi- 
viduals to one or another race. 

Such being the case, it is a fair comparison to set 
one race over against another and deduce the 

Physical Criteria of Racial Superiority. — We are ac- 
customed familiarly to speak of '^ higher '' and '' low- 
er '' races, and we are justified in this even from merely 
physical considerations. These indeed bear intimate 
relations to mental capacity, and where the body pre- 
sents many points of arrested or retarded develop- 
ment, we may be sure that the mind will also. 

There are two explanations of the presence of the 
inferior physical traits in certain races of men ; the 
one, that of the evolutionists, that they are reversions 
or perpetuations of the ape-like (simian, pithecoid) 
features of the lower animal which was man's immedi- 
ate ancestor ; the other, that of the special creationists, 
that they are instances of surviving fetal peculiarities, 
or else deficiency or excels of development from un- 
known causes. 

The following are the principal traits of the kind : 

Simplicity and early union of cranial sutures. 

Presence of the frontal process of the temporal 
bone. 

Wide nasal aperture, with synostosis of the nasal 
bones. 



48 PHYSICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Prominence of the jaws. 

Recession of the chin. 

Early appearance, size and permanence of the " wis- 
dom '' -teeth. 

Unusual length of the humerus. 

Perforation of the humerus. ' 

Continuation of the '' heart '' line across the hand. 

Obliquity (narrowness) of the pelvis. 

Deficiency of the calf of the leg. 

Flattening of the tibia. 

Elongation of the heel (os calcis). 

When all or many of these traits are present, the 
individual approaches physically the type of the an- 
thropoid apes, and a race presenting many of thems is 
properly called a 'Mower'' race. On the other hand, 
where they are not present, the race is '' higher," as it 
maintains in their integrity the special traits of the 
genus Man, and is true to the type of the species. 

The adult who retains the more numerous fetal, in- 
fantile or simian traits, is unquestionably inferior to 
him whose development has progressed beyond them, 
nearer to the ideal form of the species, as revealed by 
a study of the symmetry of the parts of the body, and 
their relation to the erect stature. 

Measured by these criteria, the European or white 
race stands at the head of the list; the African or negro 
at its foot. 

The investigations of anthropologists extend much 
beyond the outlines I have now presented you. All 
parts of the body have been minutely scanned, rneas- 



LIST OF PHYSICAL ELEMENTS. 49 

ured and weighed, in order to erect a science of the 
comparative anatomy of the races. Much of value has 
been discovered; but nothing absolutely character- 
istic, nothing which enables us to divide more sharply 
one race from another than the facts I have given you. 
It is a question, indeed, whether not too much, but 
too exclusive attention has not been devoted by many 
anthropologists to the purely physical aspects of their 
science. They have multiplied useless anatomical 
refinements and a pedantic nomenclature. The more 
valuable general distinctions and their technical terms 
I present to you in the following table : — 

Scheme of Principal Physical Elements, 

i Dolichocephalic, long skulls. 
Skull ■< Mesocephalic, medium skulls. 
( Brachycephalic, ^oad skulls. 

iLeptorhine, narrow noses. 
Mesorhine, medium noses. 
Platyrhine, flat or broad noses. 

1 Megaseme, round eyes. 
Eyes -< Mesoseme, medium eyes. 
I Microseme, narrow eyes. 

I Orthognathic, straight or vertical jaws. 
Jaws -l Mesognathic, medium jaws. 

( Prognathic, projecting jaws. 

( Chamaeprosopic, low or broad face. 
Face -l Mesoprosopic, medium face. 

( Leptoprosopic, narrow or high face. 

I Platypellic, broad pelvis. 
Pelvis -< Mesopellic, medium pelvis. 
I Leptopellic, narrow pelvis. 



50 



PHYSICAL ELEMENTS IN ETHNOGRAPHY. 



Color 



Hair 



Leucochroic, white skin. 
Xanthochroic, yellow skin. 
Erythrochroic, reddish skin. 
Melanochroic, black or dark skin. 



Euthycomic, straight hair. 
J Euplocomic, wavy hair. 
I Eriocomic, wooly hair. 
[ Lophocomic, bushy hair. 



LECTURE II. 



THE PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Contents. — The mental differences of races. Ethnic psychology. 
Cause of psychical development. 

I. The Associative Elements, i. The Social Instincts; sexual 
impulse ; primitive marriage ; conception of love ; parental affec- 
tion ; filial and fraternal affection ; friendship ; ancestral worship ; 
the gens or clan ; the tribe ; personal loyalty ; the social organiza- 
tion ; systems of consanguinity ; position of woman in the state ; 
ethical standards; modesty. 2. Language; universality of; 
primeval speech ; rise of linguistic stocks ; their number ; gram- 
matical structure ; classes of languages ; morphologic scheme ; 
relation of language to thought ; significance of language in ethnog- 
raphy. 3. Religion : universality of ; early forms ; family and 
tribal religions ; universal or w^orld religions ; ethnic study of re- 
ligions ; comparison of Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism ; ma- 
terial and ideal religions ; associative influences of religions. 4. 
The Arts of Life : architecture ; agriculture ; domestication of 
animals ; inventions. 

II. The Dispersive Elements: adaptability of man to surround- 
ings. I. The Migratory Instincts ; love of roaming; early com- 
merce ; lines of traffic and migration. 2. The Combative Instincts : 
primitive condition of war ; love of combat ; its advantages ; 
heroes ; development through conflict. 

The mental differences of races and nations are real 
and profound. Some of them are just as valuable 
for ethnic classification as any of the physical elements 
I referred to in the last lecture, although purely phys- 
ical anthropologists are loath to admit this. No one 
can deny, however, that it is the psychical endowment 

(51) 



52 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

of a tribe or a people which decides fatally its luck in 
the fight of the world. Those, therefore, who would 
master the highest significance of ethnography in its 
function as the key to history, will devote to this 
branch of it their most earnest attention. 

The study of the general mental peculiarities of a 
people is called '' ethnic psychology.'' As a science, it 
may be treated by various methods, applicable to the 
different aims of research. For our present purpose, 
which is to study the growth, migrations and com- 
minglings of races and peoples, the most suggestive 
method will be to classify their mental distinctions 
under the two main headings of Associative and Dis- 
persive Elements. The predominance of one or the 
other of these is ever eminently formative in the char- 
acter and history of a people, and both must be con- 
stantly considered with reference to their bearings on 
the progress of a nation toward civilization. 

The psychical development of men and nations finds 
its chief explanation, less in the natural surroundings, 
the climate, soil, and water-currents, as is taught by 
some philosophers, than in their relations and connec- 
tions with each other, their friendships, federations 
and enmities, their intercourse in commerce, love and 
war. Around these must center the chief studies of 
ethnographic science, for they contain and present the 
means for reaching its highest, almost its only aim — 
the comprehension of the social and intellectual pro- 
gress of the species. 



THE SEXUAL INSTINCT. 53 

I. The Associative Elements. 

The sense of fellowship, the gregarious instinct, was 
inherited by our first fathers from their anthropoid 
ancestors. The " river drift " men, who dwelt on the 
banks of the Thames and the Somme before the gla- 
cial epoch, were gathered into small communities, as 
their remains testify. The most savage tribes, Fueg- 
ians and Australians, roam about in detached bands. 
They are not under the control of a chief, but are led 
to such union by much the same motives as prompt 
buffaloes to gather in a herd. 

These fundamental mental elements which impel to 
association are : 

I. The Social Instincts, 

Strongest of them all is the sexual impulse. The 
foundation of every community is the bond of the 
man and woman, and the nature of this bond is the 
surest test of a community's position in the scale of 
culture. It is not likely that miscellaneous cohabita- 
tion, or that slightly modified form of it called '' com- 
munal marriage,'' ever existed. No instance of it has 
been known to history."' In the most brutal tribes the 
man asserts his right of ownership in the woman. 
The rare custom of '' polyandry," where a woman has 
several husbands at once, gives her no general license. 

It is equally true that the tender sentiments of love 

*The alleged examples are satisfactorily set aside by Dr. Wilhelm 
Schneider, Die Natiirvolker^ Bd. II., ss. 425, sqq. (Paderborn, 1886.) 



54 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

appear to be less known to the lowest savages than 
they are to beasts and birds. The process of mating 
is by brute force, marriage is by robbery, and the 
women are in a wretched slavery. Mutual affection 
has no existence. Such is the state of affairs among 
the Australians, the western Eskimos, the Athapascas, 
the Mosquitos, and many other tribes."^ 

But it is gratifying to find that we have to mount 
but a step higher in the scale to find the germs of a 
nobler understanding of the sex relation. In many 
tribes of but moderate culture, their languages supply 
us with evidence that the sentiment of love was awake 
among them, and this is corroborated by the incidents 
we learn of their domestic life. This I have shown 
in considerable detail by an analysis of the words for 
love and affection in the languages of the Algonkins, 
Nahuas, Mayas, Qquichuas, Tupis and Guaranis, all 
prominent tribes of the American Indians. f 

Some of the songs and stories of this race seem to 
reveal even a capability for romantic love, such as 
would do credit to a modern novel. This is the more 
astonishing, as in the African and Mongolian races 
this ethereal sentiment is practically absent, the ideal- 
ism of passion being something foreign to those varie- 
ties of man. 

* Much of this seemmg violence is " ceremonial," as I have al- 
ready observed (page 44) ; but what I wish now to emphasize is that 
the marriage is without show of affection. 

t D. G. Brinton, " The Conception of Love in some American Lan- 
guages," in Essays of an Americanist^'^. 410, sq. (Philadelphia, 1890.) 



AFFECTION AND FRIENDSHIP. 55 

The sequel of the sexual impulse is the formation 
of the family through the development of parental 
affection. This instinct is as strong in many of the 
lower animals as in human beings. In primitive con- 
ditions it is largely confined to the female parent, the 
father paying but slight attention to the welfare of 
his offspring. To this, rather than to a doubt of pa- 
ternity, should we attribute the very common habit in 
such communities, of reckoning ancestry in the female 
line only. 

Akin to this is filial and fraternal affection, leading 
to a preservation of the family bond through genera- 
tions, and in spite of local separation. It is surprising 
how strong is this sentiment even in conditions of low 
culture. The Polynesians preserved their genealogies 
through twenty generations ; the Haidah Indians of 
Vancouver's Island boast of fifteen or eighteen. 

The sentiment of friendship has been supposed by 
some to be an acquisition of higher culture. Nothing 
is more erroneous. Dr. Carl Lumholtz tells me he has 
seen touching examples of it among Australian can- 
nibals, and the records of travelers are full of instances 
of devoted affection in members of savage tribes, both 
toward each other and toward persons of other races. 
There are established rites in early social conditions, 
by which a stranger is received into the bond of fel- 
lowship and the sanctity of friendship."^ This is often 
by a transfer of the blood of the one to the body of the 

* For numerous examples, see Dr. Wilhelm Schneider's work, Die 
Natiirvolker^ Th. II., ss. 290, 294, etc. 



56 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

other, or a symbolic ceremony to that efifect, the mean- 
ing being that the stranger is thus admitted to the 
rights of kinship in the gens or clan. Springing from 
this clannish affection is the custom of ancestral zvor- 
ship, which adds a link to the bond of the family. It 
is so widely spread that Herbert Spencer has endeav- 
ored to derive from it all other forms of religion. 
But this is a hasty generalization. The religious sen- 
timent had many other primitive forms of expression. 

Through these various personal affections we reach 
the development of the family into the gens, the clan 
or totem, all of whose members, whether by con- 
sanguinity or adoption, are held to represent one in- 
terest. 

The union of several gentes under one control con- 
stitutes the tribe, which is the first step toward what is 
properly a state. The tribe passes beyond the ties of 
affinity by embracing in certain common interests per- 
sons who are not recognized as allied in blood. Yet 
it is curious to note that the tribal sentiments are 
among the very strongest mankind ever exhibits, sur- 
passing those of family affection. Brutus felt no hesi- 
tation in sacrificing his son for the common weal. 
Classical antiquity is full of admonitions and examples 
to the same effect. So powerful is the devotion of the 
Polynesians that they have been known when a canoe 
was capsized where sharks abounded, to form a ring 
around their chief, and sacrifice themselves one by one 
to the ravenous fish, that he might escape. 

This sentiment of personal loyalty has been in his- 



THEORY OF EARLY SOCIETY. 57 

tory the main strength of many a government, and has 
in it something chivalric and noble, which challenges 
our admiration ; yet it is quite opposed to the prin- 
ciples of republicanism and the equal rights of individ- 
uals, and we must condemn it as belonging to a lower 
stage of evolution than that to which we have arrived. 

The result of these gregarious instincts is the forma- 
tion of the social organisation, the bond under which 
first the primitive horde and later the members of the 
developed commonwealth consented to live. From 
first to last, wherever found, communities of men are 
bound together by ties of consanguinity and afifection 
rather than mere self-interest. Those writers who 
pretend that sodety once existed without the idea of 
kinship, with promiscuity in the sexual relation, and 
without some recognized controlling power, have 
failed to produce such an example from actual life. 

These ties led to the systems of '' consanguinity and 
affinity '' which recur with singular sameness at a cer- 
tain stage of culture the world over. They give rise to 
what is called the totemic or gentile phase of society, 
in which its members are organized into '' gentes " or 
clans, '' phratries '' or associations of clans, and the 
tribe, which embraces several such *phratries. This 
theory affected the disposition of property, which be- 
longed to the clan and not to the individual, and the 
form of government, which was usually by a council 
appointed from the various clans. The recognition of 
the wide prevalence of these ideas in the ancient w^orld 
has led to profound modifications of our views respect- 



58 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

ing its institutions, and a better understanding of 
many of the events of history.* 

In social organizations one of the criteria of excel- 
lence is the position of woman. Upon this depends the 
life of the family and the development of morality. 
Those nations which have gained the most enduring 
conquests in power and culture have conceded to wo- 
man a prominent place in social life. In ancient Egypt, 
in Etruria, in republican Rome, women owned prop- 
erty, and enjoyed equal rights under the law. Where 
woman is enslaved, as among the Australian tribes, 
progress is scarcely possible ; where she is imprisoned, 
as in Mohammedan countries, progress may be rapid 
for a time, but is not permanent. Unusual mental 
ability in a man is generally inherited from his mother, 
and a nation which studies to prevent women from ac- 
quiring an education and from taking an active part in 
affairs, is preparing the way to engender citizens of 
inferior minds. 

Among other ethnic traits, the appreciation of the 
ethical standard differs notably. Long ago the ob- 
servant Montaigne commented on the conflicting 
views of morals in nations, and remarked rather cynic- 
ally that what was good on one side of a river was 
deemed wicked on the other. This is especially no- 
ticeable in the sense of justice, the rights of property, 

* Our countryman, Lewis H. Morgan, was the first to place this 
subject in its true light in his work Ajicient Society (New York, 1878). 
He doubtless carried the theory too far in certain directions, but in 
others it has not yet been sufficiently appreciated by historians. 



PRIMITIVE ETHICS. 59 

and the regard for truth. No Asiatic nation respects 
truth telHng, or can be made to see that it is abstractly 
desirable when it conflicts with their immediate in- 
terests. The rights of property are generally con- 
strued entirely differently to ourselves among nations 
in the lower grades of culture, because the idea of in- 
dependent personal ownership does not exist among 
them. What they have belongs to the clan or the 
horde, and they merely have the use of it. 

The basis of ethics in all undeveloped conditions is 
not general but special ; it relates to the tribe and the 
family, and is in direct conflict with the philosopher 
Kant's famous '' categorical imperative,'' which makes 
the basis the welfare of the whole species. Hence, in 
primitive culture and survivals there is a dual system 
of morals, the one of kindness, love, help and peace, 
applicable to the members of our own clan, tribe or 
community; the other of robbery, hatred, enmity and 
murder, to be practiced against all the rest of the 
world ; and the latter is regarded as quite as much a 
sacred duty as the former, '^ Ethics, therefore, while 
a powerfully associative element in the one direction^, 
becomes dispersive or segregating in others, unless 
the sense of duty is taught as a universal and not as a 
class or national conception. 

The sentiment of modesty is developed by man in 
society, and he alone among animals possesses it. 
Whatever has been said to the contrary, it is never 

* See M. Kulischer, " Der Dualismus der Ethik bei den primitiven 
Volkern,*'m Zeitschrift fiir Eth7iologie^ 1885, s. 105. 



60 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

absent. Frequently, indeed, its manifestation is not 
according to our usages, and is thus overlooked. 
Women with us expose their faces, which a Moorish 
lady would think most indelicate. The Bedawin wo- 
men consider it immodest to have the back of the head 
uncovered ; the Siamese think nothing of displaying 
nude limbs, but on no account would show the uncov- 
ered sole of the foot. In certain African courts, the 
men wear long robes while the women appear nude. 
The necessary functions of the body are everywhere 
veiled by retirement, and in the most savage tribes, a 
regard for decency is constantly noted. 
The second chief associative principle is 

2, Language, 

Unlike the elements of affection which I have been 
tracing, language is not a legacy from a brute ancestor. 
It is the peculiar property of the genus Man, and no 
tribe has ever been known without a developed gram- 
matical articulate speech, with abundance of expres- 
sions for all its ideas. The stories of savages so rude 
that they were forced to eke out their words with 
gestures, and could not make themselves intelligible 
in the dark, are fables. The languages of the most 
barbarous communities are always ample in forms, 
and often surprisingly flexible, rich and sonorous. 

We must indeed suppose a time when the speech of 
primeval man had a feeble, imperfect beginning. 
*' The origin of language " has been a favorite theme 
for philologists to speculate about, with sparse fruit 



RISE OF LINGUISTIC STOCKS. 6l 

for their readers. We can, indeed, picture to our- 
selves something Hke what it must have been in its 
very early stages, by studying a number of very simple 
languages, and noting what parts of the grammar and 
dictionary they dispense with. Following this plan, I 
once undertook to show what might have been the 
language of man far back in palaeolithic times. It 
probably had no '' parts of speech," such as nouns, 
pronouns, prepositions or adjectives; it had no gender, 
number nor case, no numerals and no conjugations. 
The different sounds, vowels or consonants, conveyed 
specific significations, and each phrase was summed 
up in a single word."^^ 

In some such way language began. But remember 
that this is quite another question from the origin of 
lang^tages, or, to use the proper term, of lingitistic 
stocks. They are very numerous, and many of com- 
paratively late birth. Those convolutions of the brain 
which preside over speech once developed, man did 
not have to repeat his long and toilsome task of ac- 
quiring linguistic facility. Children are always origi- 
nating new words and expressions, and if two or three 
infants are left much together, they will soon have a 
tongue of their own, unlike anything they hear around 
them. Numerous examples of this character have 
been collected by Horatio Hale, and upon them he 
has based an entirely satisfactory theory of the 

* See " The Earliest Form of Human Speech as revealed by Amer- 
ican Tongues," in my Assays of an Americanist^ p. 390. (Philadel- 
phia, 1890). 



'62 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

source of that multiplicity of languages which we find 
in various parts of the globe.'^ In the unstable life of 
barbarous epochs, very young children were often left 
without parents or protectors, or wandered off and 
were lost. Most of them doubtless perished, but those 
who survived developed a tongue of their own, nearly 
all whose radicals would be totally different from those 
of the language of their parents. Thus in early times 
numerous dialects, numerous independent tongues, 
came to be spoken within limited areas by the same 
ethnic stock. 

It is a common error to suppose that there was 
once but one or a few languages, from which all others 
have been derived. The reverse is the case. Within 
the historic period, the number of languages has been 
steadily diminishing. We know of scores which have 
become extinct, as many American tongues ; others, 
like the Celtic, are in plain process of disappearance. 
We can almost predict the time when the work and 
the thought of the world will be carried on in less 
than half a dozen tongues, if indeed that many sur- 
vive as really active. 

If we take a comprehensive survey of the grammat- 
ical structure of all known tongues, we are cheered by 
the discovery that they can be divided into a few great 
classes or groups. The similarities of each group 
are not in words or sounds, but in the plan of ^' ex- 



*" On the Origin of Language," in Proceedings of the Anier. Assoc, 
for the Adv, of Science^ 1887, p, 279. 



MORPHOLOGY OF LANGUAGES. 63 

pressing the proposition," or placing words together 
in a phrase to convey an idea. 

This may be accompHshed in one of four ways : 

1. By isolation. The words representing the parts 
of the phrase may be ranged one after another with- 
out any change. This is the case in the Chinese and 
the languages of Farther India. 

2. By agghitination. The principal word in the 
phrase may have added to it or placed before it a num- 
ber of syllables expressing the relations to it of the 
other ideas. Most African and North Asian tongues 
are agglutinative. 

3. By incorporation. The accessory words are 
either inserted within the verbal members of the sen- 
tence, or attached to it in abbreviated forms, so that 
the phrase has the appearance of one word. Most 
American languages belong to this type. 

4. By inflection. Each word of the sentence indi- 
cates by its own form its relation to the main proposi- 
tion. All Aryan and Semitic idioms are more or less 
inflected. 

These distinctions have great ethnographic interest. 
They almost deserve to be called racial traits. Thus, 
the inflected languages belonged originally solely to 
the European race ; the isolating languages are still 
confined wholly to the Sinitic branch of the Asian 
race; the incorporative languages are found nowhere 
of such pure type and so numerous as in the American 
race; while the agglutinative type is that alone which 
is found in independent examples in every race. 



64 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

Scheme of Languages. 

, T- 1 .. ( Chinese, Thibetan, Sifan, Tai. 

1. Isolating < ' . -r^ 

( Siamese, Annamite, Burmese, Assamese. 

. By reduplication and ( Polynesian, Papuan. 
prefixes ( Bantu. 

2. Agglutinative \ / Sibiric tongues, (Ural-altaic), 
By suffixes < Basque. 

( Japanese, Korean, Dravidian. 
( ^ . , ( Algonkin, NahuatL 

3. Incorporative J '' ^^^^^ synthetic tendency | Q^^^.^ua, Guarani. 

( 2. With analytic tendency. Otomi, Maya,Sahaptin. 
/ I. By annexing grammatical elements. Egyptian. 

4. Inflectional V 2. By inner changes of stem. Libyan, Semitic. 

\ 3. By addition of suffixes. Aryac tongues. 

The principles on which languages should be com- 
pared are frequently misunderstood, and this is one of 
the reasons why the value of linguistics to ethnography 
has so often been underrated. 

The first rule which should be observed is to rank 
grammatical structure far above verbal coincidences. 
The neglect of this rule will condemn any effort at 
comparison. For example, there have been writers 
who have sought to derive the Polynesian, an aggluti- 
native, from the Sanscrit, an inflected tongue; or an 
American from a Semitic stock. Such attempts re- 
veal an ignorance of the nature of language. 

A second rule is that in tracing the etymology of 
words, the phonetic lazvs of the special group to which 
they belong must be followed. This is an even more 
frequent source of error than the former. Writers of 
high reputation will trace variations in African or 
American or Semitic names by the phonetic laws of 



LANGUAGE IN ETHNOGRAPHY. 65 

the Aryac dialects — an absurd error, as the phonetic 
changes are not at all the same in different ling-uistic 
stocks. 

Yet a third rule is to appraise correctly the value of 
verbal identities. Generally, it is placed too high. All 
developed tongues include many '' loan words," bor- 
rowed from a variety of sources. They are not prima 
facie evidence of ethnic relation ; they have frequently 
been transmitted through other nations, as is the case 
with thousands of English words. 

An absolute verbal identity is always suspicious ; 
or rather it is of no ethnic value. There must be a 
series of words in the languages compared of the same 
or similar meanings, but whose forms have been al- 
tered by the phonetic laws peculiar to the group, for 
such lists of words to merit the attention of a scien- 
tific linguist. 

The question how far languages can be accepted as 
indicating the relationships of peoples has been a bone 
of contention. One principle we may lay down, with 
unimportant exceptions — No nation has ever willingly 
adopted a foreign tongue. Whenever such a change 
has taken place, it has been under stress of sover- 
eignty, vi coactnm, as the lawyers say. Hence in the 
savage state, where prolonged domination of one tribe 
by another rarely occurs, language is an excellent 
ethnic guide, as in America and ancient Europe. 

Another principle is that in a conflict of tongues, as 
after conquest, that tongue prevails zvhich belongs to 
the more cultured people, whether this be conqueror or 
5 



66 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

conquered. This is well illustrated by the survival of 
the Romance languages after the inroads of the Teu- 
tonic hordes at the Fall of the Western Empire. 

A third maxim in linguistic ethnography is that 
mixture of languages, especially in grammatical struc- 
ture, indicates mixture of blood. When, for instance, 
we find the Maltese a dialect partly Arabic, partly 
Romance, we may correctly infer that the people of 
the island are descended from both these stocks. 
This holds good even of loan words, when they are 
numerous ; for though such have no influence on the 
grammatical structure of a tongue, they testify to 
some relations between nations, which we may be sure 
corresponded to others of a sexual nature. 

The '' American citizens of African descent '' speak 
English only ; and though they have been in contact 
w^ith the white race for but three or four generations, 
the majority of those now living are related to it by 
blood, that is, are mulattoes. 

The mental aptitude of a nation is closely dependent 
on the type of its idiom. The mind is profoundly in- 
fluenced by its current modes of vocal expression. 
When the form of the phrase is such that each idea is 
kept clear and apart, as it is in nature, and yet its re- 
lations to other ideas in the phrase and the sentence 
are properly indicated by the grammatical construction, 
the intellect is stimulated by wider variety in images 
and a nicer precision in their outlines and relations. 
This is the case in the highest degree with the lan- 
guages of inflection, and it is no mere coincidence that 



THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT. 67 

those peoples who have ever borne the banner in the 
van of civihzation have always spoken inflected 
tongues. The world will be better off when all others 
are extinguished, and it is only in deep ignorance of 
linguistic ethnography that such a language as 
Volapiik — agglutinative in type — could have been of- 
fered for adoption as a world-language. 

I have said that alone of all animals, man has artic- 
ulate speech ; I now add that also alone of all animals, 
he is capable of 

J. Religion, 

Not only is he capable of it; he has never been 
known to be devoid of it. All statements that tribes 
have been discovered without any kind of religion are 
erroneous. Not one of them has borne the test of close 
investigation.''' The usual mistake has been to sup- 
pose that this or that belief, this or that moral obser- 
vance, constitutes religion. In fact, there are plenty 
of immoral religions, and some which are atheistic. 
The notion of a God or gods is not essential to religion ; 
for that matter, some of the most advanced religious 
teachers assert that such a notion is incompatible with 
the highest religioUr Religion is simply the recog- 
nition of the Unknown as a controlling element in the 

* The proof of this is furnished by Gustav Roskof, Das Religions- 
wesen der Rohesten Naturvolker (Leipzig, 1880), and Wilhelm Schnei- 
der, Die Naturvolker^ II. Theil (Paderborn, 1886). The asser- 
tions to the contrary by Herbert Spencer, Sir John Lubbock, and 
various P'rench writers, arise from a lack of study of the evidence, or 
a misunderstanding of terms. 



68 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

destiny of man and the world about him. This we 
shall find in the cult of every nation, and in the heart 
of every man. 

Some nations identified this unknown controlling 
power with one real or supposed existence, some with 
another. Those in whom the family sentiment was 
well developed believed themselves still under the 
control of their deceased parents, giving rise to ''an- 
cestral worship ; '' more frequently the change from 
light to darkness, day to night, impressed the children 
of nature, and led to light and sun worship ; in some 
localities the terrific force displayed in the cyclone or 
the thunder-storm seemed the mightiest revelation of 
the Unknown, and we have the Lightning and Storm 
Myths; elsewhere, any odd or strange object, any un- 
explained motion, was attributed to the divine, the 
siiper-ndiiwrdiX. The last mentioned mental state gave 
rise to those low cults called '' fetichism ^' and ani- 
mism,'' while the former are supposed to be somewhat 
higher and are distinguished as '' polytheisms.'' In all 
of them, the prevailing sentiment is fear of the Un- 
known ; the spirit of worship is propitiatory, the gods 
being regarded as jealous and inclined to malevolence; 
the cult is of the nature of sorcery, certain formulas, 
rites and sacrifices being held to placate or neutralize 
the ill-will or bad temper of the divinities. In its 
lowest forms this is called '' shamanism ; " in its high- 
est, it IS seen in all dogmatic religions. 

In early conditions, each tribe has its own gods, 
which are not supposed to be superior, except in force, 



TRIBAL AND WORLD RELIGIONS. 69 

to the gods of neighboring tribes. No attempt is made 
to extend their worship beyond the tribe, and in their 
images they are Hable to be captured, as are their vot- 
aries. Special prisons for such captive gods were 
constructed in ancient Rome and Cuzco. 

These '' tribal religions '' prevailed everywhere in 
early historic times. The religion of the ancient Is- 
raelites, such as we find it portrayed in the Pentateuch, 
was of this character. In later days, profoundly relig- 
ious minds of philosophic cast perceived that tribal 
cults do not satisfy the loftiest aspirations of the relig- 
ious sentiment. The conceptions of the highest truths 
must be universal conceptions, and in obedience to 
this the Universal or World-religions were formed. 

The earliest of these was preached by Sakya Muni, 
Prince of Kapilavastu, in India, about 500 B. C. It is 
known as Buddhism, and has now the largest number 
of believers of any one faith. The second was that 
taught by Christ, and the third is Islam, introduced by 
Mohammed in the seventh century. It is noteworthy 
that all these world-religions were framed by members 
of the white race. None has been devised by mem- 
bers of the other races, for the doctrines advanced by 
Confutse and Laotse in China are philosophic sys- 
tems rather than religions. 

The three World-religions named have rapidly ex- 
tinguished the various tribal religions, and it is easy 
to foresee that in a few generations they will virtually 
embrace the religious sentiments of all mankind. 
They are all three on the increase, Christianity the 



70 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

most rapidly by the extension of the nations adhering 
to it, but Mohammedanism can claim in the present 
century the greater number of proselytes, its fields 
being in Central Asia, India, and Central Africa. 

In the ethnographic study of religions for the pur- 
pose of estimating their influence on the life and 
character of nations, we must take notice especially 
of three points: i. The ethical contents of a faith; 
2. The philosophic ^' theory of things '' on which it is 
based (cosmogony, theosophy, etc.), and 3. Its power 
over the emotions, as upon this rests its practical 
potency. 

As currently taught, no one of the three world- 
religions named is fully adequate on all these points. 
The cosmogony of Christianity is a series of Assyrian 
and Hebrew myths contradicted by modern science, 
and its ethical purity has been often sullied by efforts 
to place faith in dogmas above the law of conscience. 
Mohammedanism, a more genuine monotheism than 
Christianity, in some respects higher in practical mo- 
rality (temperance, charity, equality), and certainly 
superior in power over the emotions, is weak in its 
doctrine of fatalism and in its degradation of woman. 
Buddhism is tainted by a profound distrust of the 
value of the individual life, by a false theory of the 
universe, and by its borrowed doctrine of metempsy- 
chosis ; but rises high in its appeals to the sense of 
justice and right within the mind. 

A religion tends to elevate its votaries in the pro- 
portion that it withdraws their minds from merely 



MATERIAL VS. IDEAL' RELIGIONS. *J\ 

material aims, and sets before them stimulating ideals. 
This is the distinction between '' material " and 
'' ideal '' cults. Where the rites are directed mainly to 
conjuration, where the prayers are for good luck in 
life, where the myths are mere stories of exaggerated 
human shapes, there the faith is material. Such were 
all the religions of the African blacks and of the East- 
ern and Northern Asiatic tribes. They have never 
developed any thing higher. Among the whites, how- 
ever, and in a less degree among the American Indians, 
there were mythical ideal figures, ranked among the 
gods, who embodied grand ideal conceptions of the 
possible perfectibility of man, and served as examples 
and models for the religious sentiment.''' 

The associative influence of a religion, whether 
tribal or universal in theory, is singularly powerful. 
The Mohammedan who looks toward Mecca, the 
Christian who turns toward Rome, feels a like bond 
of sympathy with his fellow worshippers of every race 
and color, as did the Israelite who wended his way to 
Jerusalem, or the Nahuatl who travelled to the sacred 
city of Cholula. The pilgrimages, the Crusades, the 
ecclesiastical Councils of past ages, have collected 
nations together under the control of ideas stronger 
than any which practical life can offer. 

Other bonds of union are those derived from the 
practice of 

* I have endeavored to show this, so far as it applies to native 
American religions, in my volume, Ame7'ican Hero-Myths (Philadel- 
phia, 1882). 



"^2 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

^. The Arts of Life, 

Unquestionably the earliest of these to exert such an 
influence was the construction of a shelter, in other 
words architecture. We know that even glacial man 
had learned enough to make himself a house, though 
it was probably inferior to that of the muskrat. In 
early conditions one structure sheltered several fami- 
lies. Such are called '' communal houses," and some 
ethnologists have argued that they are well nigh uni- 
versal down to a very late day in the evolution of do- 
mestic architecture. The temple, the fortified refuge, 
the city with its grouped homes shut in by a common 
wall of defence — all these illustrate how architecture 
has ever tended to bring men together, and strengthen 
their instincts of association. 

Later in time but wider in its influence in the same 
direction was the growth of agricidttire. This art 
completely revolutionized the habits of life, and ren- 
dered possible the advent of civilization. The tribe, 
dependent on hunting and fishing or on natural pro- 
ducts for a livelihood, is necessarily migratory and 
separative in its habits. The tillage of the ground 
with equal necessity demands a stable residence and a 
centralization of individuals. The areas of primitive 
culture, the sites of the earliest cities, were always in 
situations favorable to agricultural pursuits. 

Along with the cultivation of food-plants went 
hand-in-hand the domestication of animals. The horse 
was trained independently in both Europe and Asia, 
some species of the dog in all continents, the ox for 



THE FINE AND USEFUL ARTS. 73 

draft and the cow for milk principally in Asia, and 
the camel for the deserts of Arabia and Africa. These 
humble aids brought together distant tribes, and as- 
similated their characters. 

The prosecution of the various special arts, as pot- 
tery, metal work, textile fabrics, etc., led to the forma- 
tion of guilds and the association of workers in par- 
ticular localities favorable to obtaining and utilizing 
the raw products. Each such conquest of the inven- 
tive faculties drew men into closer bonds of harmonious 
labor, and opened for them new avenues of joint in- 
dustry. The pre-historic past of the race is measured 
by archaeologists by the rise and extension of new 
arts, not because of themselves, but because they are 
indicative of improved social conditions, greater ag- 
gregations of men, more potent actions in history. 
The fine arts, in crowning the useful arts with the 
iridescent glory of the ideal, impart to the handiwork 
of men that universality of motive which unites all 
into one brotherhood. 

The second class of psychic traits are : 

IL The Dispersive Elements. 

These have been of the utmost moment in the his- 
tory of the species, and a controlling factor in the 
records of every people. They are derived from two 
quite different impulses in human nature; the one, a 
natural propensity to roam, the other, a predisposition 
to contest. 

Both have been favored by the ability of the species 



74 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

to adapt itself to its surroundings, far surpassing that 
of any other animal. There is no zone and no altitude 
offering the necessary food supplies that man does not 
inhabit. The cat, with its traditional '' nine lives," 
perishes in the upper Andes, where men live in popu- 
lous cities. No one breed of dogs can follow man to 
all latitudes. His powers of locomotion are equally 
surprising. He can walk the swift horse to death, and 
his steady and tireless gait will in the long-run leave 
every competitor behind. An Indian will track a deer 
for days and capture it through its utter fatigue. A 
Tebu thinks little of passing three days under the sun 
of the Sahara without drinking Such powers as these 
endow man with the highest migratory faculties of any 
animal, and give rise to or have been developed from 

I. The Migratory Instincts. 

Many species of animals, especially birds, change 
their habitat with the seasons, the object usually being 
to obtain a better food supply. So do most hunting 
and fishing tribes, and for the same reason. Often 
these periodical journeys extend hundred of miles and 
embrace the whole tribe. 

This must also have been the case with primeval 
man when he occupied the world in ^'palaeolithic'' 
time. His home was along the shores of seas and the 
banks of streams. Up and down these natural high- 
ways he pursued his wanderings, until he had extended 
his roamings over most of the habitable land. 

What prompted him and all savage tribes is not al- 



PRIMITIVE WANDERINGS. 75 

ways the search for food. The desire for c. more 
genial cHmate, the pressure of foes, and often mere 
causeless restlessness, act as motive forces in the move- 
ments of an unstable population. Certain peoples, as 
the Gypsies, seem endowed with an hereditary instinct 
for vagabondage. The nomadic hordes of the Asiatic 
steppes and the wastes of the Sahara transmit a rest- 
lessness to their descendants which in itself is an ob- 
stacle to a sedentary life. 

Such vagrant tribes became the colporteurs and 
commercial travellers of early society. They invented 
means or transportation, and conveyed the products of 
one region to another. Only of late have we learned 
to appreciate the wide extent of pre-historic commerce. 
Long before Abraham settled in Ur of the Chaldees 
(say 2000 B. C), a well-travelled commercial road 
stretched from the cities of Mesopotamia, through 
Egypt to the Pillars of Hercules, and thence into Eu- 
rope."^ When Hendrick Hudson sailed into the bay 
of New York, the commercial relations of the tribes 
who lived on its shores had already extended to the 
coast of the Pacific. f 

These lines of early traffic were also the lines of the 



* See my Essay, The Cradle of the -5'^;;2/V<?j' (Philadelphia, 1890), 
and Sir Daniel Wilson, " Trade and Commerce in the Stone Age," 
in Trans. Royal Soc. Canada, 1889. 

t This is shown not only by the presence of artefacts and shells 
from the Pacific in old graves on the Atlantic coast, but by the well-pre- 
served traditions of the Eastern tribes. See my Essays of an Amer- 
icanist, p. 188 (Philadelphia, 1890). 



76 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

migrations of nations. They were fixed by the phys- 
ical geography of regions, and have rightly attracted 
the careful attention of ethnographers. Along them, 
nation has blended into nation, race fused with race. 
The conviction that early man was not sedentary, but 
mobile, by nature a migratory species, wandering 
widely over the face of the earth, is one which has been 
brought home to the ethnologist by the science of pre- 
historic archaeology, and it is full of significance. 

2, The Combative Instinct. 

The philosopher Hobbes taught that the natural 
condition of man in society is one of perpetual warfare 
with his neighbors. This grim theory is sadly attested 
by a study of savage life. The wretched Fuegians, 
the miserable Australians, with really nothing worth 
living for, let alone dying for, fall to cutting each 
other's throats the moment that tribe encounters tribe. 
So it has been in all ages, so it has been in all stages of 
culture. The warrior, the hero, is the one who wins 
the hearts of w^omen by his fame, and the devotion of 
men by his prowess. Civilization helps not at all. In 
no century of the world's history have such destruc- 
tive battles been fought as in the nineteenth ; at no 
former period have the powers of the earth collected 
such gigantic armies and navies as to-day. 

This love of combat at once separates and unites 
nations. To destroy the common foe, the bonds of 
national or tribal unity are drawn the tighter ; and the 
aversion to the enemy tends to the preservation of the 
ethnic type. ' 



BENEFITS OF WAR. ^J 

In Spite of the countless miseries which follow in its 
train, war has probably been the highest stimulus to 
racial progress. It is the most potent excitant known 
of all the faculties. The intense instinct of self-pres- 
ervation will prompt to an intellectual energy which 
nothing else can awake. The grandest works of im- 
agination, the immortal outbursts of the poets, from 
Homer to Whitman, have been under the stimulus of 
the war-cry ringing in their ears. 

The world-conquerors r nd the holy wars, Alexander 
and Napoleon, the Crusades and the Mohammedan in- 
vasions, have been landmarks in history, a destruction 
of the effete, an introduction of the new and the viable. 
Guizot's bold statement that in the decisive battles of 
the world it has been, not the strongest battalions, but 
the truest idea which has conquered, may be a pro- 
found ethnologic truth. Certain it is that in weighing 
the psychical elements of man's nature and their influ- 
ence on the past history of the species, we must assign 
to his combative instincts a most prominent place as 
stimulants, and we must recognize, amid "all the mis- 
eries which they have brought upon him, the part they 
have played in his development. That they have al- 
ways resulted in promoting the '' survival of the 
fittest,'' it is hard to believe, and there is much to make 
us doubt; but that a great deal of the unfit has thus 
been destroyed, we may reasonably accept. 

What has been true always, is true to-day. It is 
force, might, which forever exercises '' the right of em- 
inent domain ;" and this principle is as necessary as it 



78 PSYCHICAL ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHY. 

is indestructible. Proudhon was logical, when, in his 
treatise on War and Peace, he placed war and the 
duty of waging war at the basis of all society, and de- 
fended it as the necessary condition of civilization, in- 
asmuch as it alone is the highest form of judicial ac- 
tion, the last appeal of the oppressed. Never, we may 
be sure, will the human species be ready or willing to 
forego this, the greatest of all their privileges. 



LECTURE III. 



THE BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

Contents. — The origin of Man. Theories of monogenism and poly- 
genism ; of evolution ; heterogenesis. Identities point to one 
origin. Birthplace of the species. The oldest human relics. Re- 
mains of the highest apes. Question of climate. Negative argu- 
ments. Darwin's belief that the species originated in Africa con- 

. firmed ; but with modifications. Quaternary geography of Europe 
and Africa. Northern Africa united with Southern Europe. 
Former shore lines. The Sahara Sea. The quaternary continents 
of " Eurafrica," and " Austafrica." Relics of man in them. Man 
in pre-glacial times. The Glacial Age. Effect on man. Scheme 
of geologic time during the Age of Man. His development into 
races. Approximate date of this. Localities where it occurred. 
The " areas of characterization." Relations of continents to 
races. Theory of Linnaeus ; of modern ethnography. Classifica- 
tion of races. General ethnographic scheme. Sub-divisions of 
races ; branches ; stocks ; groups ; peoples ; tribes ; nations. Other 
terms ; ethnos and ethnic ; culture ; civilization. Stadia of culture. 

In the rapid survey contained in the previous lec- 
tures you have seen in how many points the races 
diflfer. No wonder that the question has often been 
seriously mooted by scientific men, Could they all have 
been derived from one common ancestral stock? This 
is the old debate about " the unity of the human race/' 
still surviving under the more learned terms of mono- 
genism or polygenism. 

As to that other question, whether man came into 
(79) 



80 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

being as such by a gradual development, evolution, or 
transformation, from some lower mammal, this may be 
regarded as the only hypothesis now known to science, 
and must, therefore, be accepted, at least provisionally, 
until some better is proposed. It is the only theory 
consistent with man's place in the zoological world, 
and is borne out by numerous anatomical analogies, 
which have been referred to in my first lecture. 

In fact, we are driven to it by necessity. No other 
origin of species than by transformation of earlier 
forms has been suggested, even by those who reject it.. 
I do not speak of specific creation, for that supposi- 
tion does not belong to science, but to an obscurant 
mysticism, which is the negative of all true knowdedge. 

But within the limits of the transformation theory 
there is more than one method by which varying 
forms are produced, and one of these may prove appli- 
cable to man, in whose earliest remains we have so far 
found no positive indications of a lower physical char- 
acter than he now has.'*^ So far, the ^^ missing link " 
is as much out of sight as ever it w^as ; so far, man ap- 
pears to have been always what he is to-day. 

May he not, as a species, have come into being 
through a short series of well-marked varieties, each 

* Such at any rate is the opmion expressed last year (1889) by the 
most celebrated living anthropologic anatomist, Professor Virchow, 
in an address before the German Anthropological Association. {Cor- 
^respondenz Blatt der Deittsche^t AntJu^op. Gesell., Sept., 1889, s. 96.) 
Except for the weight of his great name, I should hesitate to say as 
much ; and as it is, I entertain some doubts as to the accuracy of 
the statement. 



THE UNITY OF THE SPECIES. 8l 

produced by what is called '' heterogenesis/' that is, 
the birth of children unlike their parents? All chil- 
dren are unlike their parents, more or less ; and though 
at present this unlikeness is strictly within the limits 
of the several races, it is the opinion of some who have 
studied the matter, that in earlier geologic epochs 
changes in organic forms were more rapid and more 
profound than at present. 

I am aware that this suggestion of heterogenesis 
looks like a return to the ancient doctrine called gene- 
ratio eqttiz'oca, which, in its old form, is certainly obso- 
lete. But there is no question that in many existing 
plants and animals we find singular evidence that from 
a given form another may arise, widely different in 
structure, and perpetuate itself indefinitely. I am con- 
vinced that the importance of these facts has never 
been properly appreciated by students of the origin of 
species, and of the origin of men in particular. 

This, or any hypothesis of evolution, renders the 
supposition quite needless that the various races had 
distinct ancestral origins. Any evolutionist who ac- 
cepts the view that man is but a differentiation from 
some anthropoid ape, is straining at a gnat after swal- 
lowing the camel, if he hesitates to believe that the 
comparatively slight differences between the races may 
not have originated from like influences. Further- 
more, the resemblances between the various races are 
altogether too numerous and exact to render it likely 
that they could have been acquired through several an- 
cestries running back to various lower zoological 
6 



82 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

forms; a consideration greatly strengthened by the 
fact that man is the only species of his genus, and 
there is even no genus of his class closely related to 
himself. The chances that such a perfected animal 
should have been twice or oftener developed from the 
apes, monkeys or lemurs — his ne^^xxst cousins — are so 
small that we must dismiss the supposition. 

It seems to me, indeed, that any one who will 
patiently study the parallelisms of growth in the arts 
and sciences, in poetry and objects of utility, through- 
out the various races of men, cannot doubt of their 
psychical identity. Still more, if he will acquaint him- 
self with the modern science of Folk-lore, and will 
note how the very same tales, customs, proverbs, su- 
perstitions, games, habits, and so on, recur spontane- 
ously in tribes severed by thousands of leagues, he 
will not think it possible that creatures so wholly 
identical could have been produced by independent 
lines of evolution. 

The Birthplace of the Species. — Accepting the 
theories therefore of the evolutionists and the mono- 
genists as the most plausible in the present state of 
science, it is quite proper to inquire where primeval 
man first appeared, and what were his social condi- 
tions and personal appearance. 

To some it may seem premature to put such ques- 
tions. They are needlessly timid. It is never too 
soon to propound any question in science; always too 
soon to declare that any has been finally and irrevo- 
cably answered. 



THE BIRTHPLACE OF MAN. 83 

Beginning our search for the birthplace of the spe- 
cies, we may consider that it will be indicated by the 
cumulative evidence of three conditions. We may 
look for it, (i) where the oldest relics of man or his 
industries have been found; (2) where the remains of 
the highest of the lower mammals, especially the man- 
like apes, have been exhumed, as it is assumed that 
man himself descended from some such form; and (3) 
where we know from palaeontologic evidence a climate 
prevailed suited to man's unprotected early conditions. 

The first of these lines of investigation leads us to 
the science of '' pre-historic archaeology.'' We shall 
discover that a study of this branch of learning is in- 
dispensable not only in this connection, but to solve 
many other questions in ethnography. Here its an- 
swer is unexpected. We have been taught by long 
tradition and venerable documents to look for the first 
home of primeval man '' somewhere in Asia," as Pro- 
fessor Max Miiller generously puts it. He is inclined 
to think that from the highlands of that continent the 
tribes dispersed in various directions, some going to 
the extreme north, and then southward into Europe. 
Others would have it that the species itself came into 
life in the boreal regions, in that epoch when a mild 
climate prevailed there. 

Such dreams meet no countenance from pre-historic 
archaeology. The oldest remains of man's arts, the 
first rude flints which he shaped into utensils and 
weapons, have not been discovered in Asia, and do not 
occur at all in the northern latitudes of either continent. 



84 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

They have been exhumed from the late tertiary or 
early quaternary deposits of southern England, of 
France, of the Iberian peninsula, and of the valleys of 
the Atlas in northern Africa. They have been searched 
for most diligently but in vain in Scandinavia, Ger- 
many, Russia, Siberia, and Canada. Not any of the 
older types of so-called '' palaeolithic '' implements have 
been reported in early deposits in those countries."^ 
But in the '' river drift '' of the Thames, the Somme, 
the Garonne, and the Tagus, quantities of rough stone 
implements have been disinterred, proving that in a 
remote epoch, at a time when the hippopotamus and 
rhinoceros, the African elephant and the extinct apes, 
found a congenial home near the present sites of Lon- 
don, Paris and Lisbon, man also was there. These 
relics, especially those found in Portugal, Central Spain 
and Southern France, are the very oldest proofs of the 
presence of man on the earth yet brought to light. 

Where, now, do we find the remains of the highest 
of the lower animals? By a remarkable coincidence, 
in the same region. Of all the anthropoid apes yet 
known to the palaeontologist, that most closely simu- 
lating man is the so-called Dryopithecus fontani, 
whose bones have been disinterred in the upper valleys 
of the Garonne, in Southern France. Its height was 

*This is the result of the most recent researches. See Prof. J. N. 
Woldrich's paper, " Ueber die palaeolithische Zeit Mittel-Europas,'^ 
in the Co7n-espondenz-Blatt der Deutschen Gesell.fur Ajtthropologie^ 
1889, p. no, sq. Also Verhaitd. der Bey^liner Anthrop. Gesell^ 1884, 
s. 530, for the absence of the old stone age in Siberia, a fact which 
also tells heavily against the first peopling of America from that region. 



WHERE MAN BEGAN. 8$. 

about that of a man, its teeth strongly resembled those 
of the Australians, and its food was chiefly vegetables 
and fruits. Other remains of a similar character have 
been found in Italy. "^ 

It is well known to geologists that the apes and 
monkeys or Simiadse were abundant and highly de- 
veloped in Southern Europe in the pliocene and early 
pleistocene, just the time, as near as we can fix it, that 
man first appeared there. These facts answer the third 
of our inquiries — that for a climate suitable to man in 
an unprotected early condition, when he had to con- 
tend with the elements and the parsimony of nature, 
ill-provided as he is with many of the natural advan- 
tages possessed by other animals. At that date South- 
ern Europe and Northern Africa were under what are 
called sub-tropical conditions, possessing a climate not 
wholly tropical, but yet singularly mild and equable. 
This we know from the remains, both animal and veg- 
etable, preserved in the deposits of that epoch. 

A series of negative arguments strengthens this 
conclusion. Where we find no remains of apes or 
monkeys of the higher class, we cannot place the 
scene of man's ancestral evolution. This excludes 
America, where no tailless and no narrow-nosed (cata- 
rhine) monkeys and no large apes have been found; 
it excludes Australia, and all portions of the Old 
World north of the Alps and the Himalayas. 

In view of such facts, Darwin reached the conclu- 

* G. de Mortillet, Le Prehistoriqiie Anti quite de /' Homme, p. 120. 
(Paris, 1883.) A. Gaudry, Le D}yopitheqiie (Paris, 1890). 



86 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

sion that it is most probable that our earhest progen- 
itors lived on the African continent. There to this 
day we find on the one hand the human beings most 
closely allied to the lower animals, and the two species 
of these, the gorilla and the chimpanzee, now man's 
nearest relations among the brutes.* 

Darwin was disturbed in this conclusion by the 
presence of the large apes to whom I have referred in 
Southern Europe in late tertiary times. This^ how- 
ever, merely requires a modification in his conclusion, 
the general tenor of which, to the effect that man was 
first developed in the warm regions of the western or 
Atlantic portion of the Old World, somewhere within 
the present or ancient area of Africa, and not in Asia, 
has been steadily strengthened since the great evolu- 
tionist wrote his remarkable work on the Descent of 
Man. 

Quaternary Geography of Europe and Africa. — 
The modification which I refer to is the obvious fact 
that since the late tertiary epoch, and especially dur- 
ing and after the glacial epoch, some material changes 
have taken place in the physical geography of Europe 
and Africa. To these I must now ask your particular 
attention, as they controlled not only the scene of 
man's origin, but the lines of his early migrations. 

When primal man, with no weapon or tool but one 
chipped from a stone flake, roamed over France, Eng^ 
land and the Iberian peninsula, along with the rhino- 
ceros, the hippopotamus and the elephant, the coast 
* Darwin, The Descent of Man^ p. 155. (New York, 1883). 



ANCIENT EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY. 87 

lines of Europe and North Africa were quite unlike 
those of to-day. England and Ireland were united to 
the mainland, and neither the Straits of Dover nor St. 
George's Channel had been furrowed by the waves. 
Huge forests, such as can yet be traced near Cromer, 
covered the plains which are now the bottom of the 
German Ocean. In the broad shallow sea to the 
north, the mountainous regions of Scandinavia rose as 
islands, and between them and the Ural Mountains its 
waters spread uninterruptedly. 

To the south. Northern Africa was united to South- 
ern Europe by two wide land-bridges, one at the Straits 
of Gibraltar, one connecting Tunis with Sicily and It- 
aly. The eastern portion of the Mediterranean was a 
contracted fresh-water lake, pouring its waters into a 
broad stream which connected the Atlantic with the 
Indian Oceans. This stream covered most of the 
present desert of the Sahara, the delta of Egypt, and a 
large portion of Arabia and Southern Asia. Its north- 
ern beach extended along the southern base of the 
Atlas Mountains from the River Dra on the Atlantic 
to the Gulf of Gabes in the Mediterranean ; thence 
northward between Malta and Sicily to the Straits of 
Otranto ; by the Ionian islands easterly till it inter- 
sected the present coast-line near the mouth of the 
Orontes ; northeasterly to about Diarbekir, whence it 
trended south and east along the foot of the Zagros 
mountains to the Persian Gulf. From that point it 
followed the present coast-line to the mouth of the 
Indus, and thence pursued the base of the great north- 



88 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

ern mountain range to the mouth of the Ganges, cov- 
ering the north of Hindustan, while the southern 
elevations of that spacious peninsula, as well as a large 
part of southern and western Arabia, rose as extensive 
irregular islands above the water. Toward them the 
mainland of equatorial Africa extended much nearer 
than at present. It included in its area the island of 
Madagascar, and reached far beyond into the Indian 
Ocean. Toward the north, peninsulas and chains of 
islands, now the summits of the plateaus and moun- 
tains of the central Sahara, reached nearly or quite to 
the present shore-line of the Mediterranean, about 
Tripolis."" 

This disposition of the water left two great land 
areas in the old world, probably not actually united 
though separated only by narrow straits, one between 
the modern Tripolis and Tunis, and another on the 
northern Syrian coast. I represent these areas on the 
accompanying map, not indeed minutely, but approx- 
imately. 

The general accuracy of the contours delineated 
are now fully recognized by geologists They are at- 
tested by the remaining beach-lines of this primitive 
ocean, by the geographical distribution of its contem- 
porary fauna and flora, and by the proofs of elevation 
and submergence along the shores and in the bottom 
of the adjacent seas and oceans. The '' great sink " of 
the western Sahara, the vast '' schotts,'' or shallow salt- 

* For the details of these features, see the work of E. Suess, Das 
Antlitz der ^rde, Bd. I., s. 371, 768, etc. (Leipzig, 1885.) 



EURAFRICA AND AUSTAFRICA. 89 

water ponds south of the Atlas, the salt Dead Sea at 
the bottom of a profound depression, prove that the 
drying up of the ancient ocean is scarcely yet complete. 

So familiar have these ancient continental areas be- 
come to geological students that they have been named 
like a newly-discovered island or cape. The northern 
continent has been called Eurasia, compounded of the 
words Europe and Asia, and the southern Indo-Africa, 
from a supposed union of India and Africa."^ 

Neither of these names is quite acceptable. The 
former leaves out of account the connection of Europe 
with Africa, which is of the first importance in the 
study of early man; and the latter assumes a geo- 
graphic union between India and Africa, which is not 
likely to have existed in the period of man's life on 
earth. I prefer the two names which I have inserted 
on the map ; Etirafrica, indicating the connection be- 
tween Europe and Africa, and Anstafrica, designating 
the whole of the continent south of the ancient divid- 
ing sea. The name Asia should be confined to the 
Central Asian plateau and the regions watered by the 
countless streams which flow from it toward the north, 
east and south. 

* On the recent connection of North Africa with Europe, see A. R. 
Wallace, The Geographical Distrihtition of Aninials^ Vol. I., pp. 38, 
39; De Mortillet, Le Prehistorique Antiqttite de V Hojuine^^. 225. 
" Even in post-tertiary times," writes Hir"^-^^- U^hysiography, p. 308), 
" Africa was united to Europe at the *^ Gibraltar and across 

by Malta and Sicily, The Sahara is c .c bottom, which was 

below water at a comparatively recent period." '' The Atlas moun- 
tains," remarks Suess, " belong to the intricate orographic system of 
Europe." {Das Antlitz der E^'de^ Bd. I., s. 462.) 



90 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

Relics of Man, — Such was the configuration of land 
in the Eastern hemisphere when man first appeared. 
We know he was there at that time. I have referred 
to his rude stone (palseohthic) implements exhumed 
from the river-drift of the Thames and the Somme, a 
deposit which dates from a time when the hippopota- 
mus bathed in those rivers ; still older seem some rough 
implements discovered in gravel layers near Madrid, 
Spain, deposited by some large river in early quater- 
nary times. The worked flints near Lisbon were man- 
ufactured when a wide fresh-water lake existed where 
now not a trace of it is visible on the surface, and ac- 
cording to some archaeologists, are the most ancient 
manufactured products yet discovered.^ 

In numerous parts of North Africa, as near Tlem- 
cen in the province of Oran, and in Tunisia, the oldest 
forms of stone implements have been found in place 
beneath massive layers of quaternary travertin,f and 
in some of the most barren portions of the Libyan 
desert, now utterly sterile, the travertin contains abun- 
dant remains of leaves and grasses, along with chipped 
flints, proving that at the recession of this diluvial sea 
not only was the vegetation luxuriant, but man was 
then on the spot, as a hunter and fisher.^ 

* Emile Cartailhac Les Ages Prehistoriqices de V Espagne et du 
Portugal^ pp. 24-30 (Paris, 1886). 

t Comp. Dr. Bleicher and Sir John Lubbock in \)i\Q Joicrnal of the 
Anth7'opological Institute^ Vol. X., p. 318; Dr. R^ Collignon in Bul- 
letin de la Societe d^ Anthropologie de Paris, 1886, p. 6j6, sq. 

X See the article of C. Zittel, " Sur les silex tallies trouves dans le 
desert Lil)yque," in Congres Iiiternat. d^ Anthropologie et d^ Archeolo- 
gie, 1874, pp. 78, etc. 



THE GLACIAL AGE. QI 

Not less certain is it that he was a most ancient oc- 
cupant of Austafrica. Chert implements of the true 
'' river-drift '' type have been discovered '' in place '' 
in quaternary stratified gravels near Thebes, and else- 
where in the Nile valley; and in the diamond field of 
the Cape of Good Hope, palaeolithic forms have been 
exhumed from diluvial strata forty or fifty feet below 
the surface of the soil>' 

From similar evidence we know that man spread 
widely over the habitable earth in that remote time. 
It is known to archaeologists as the earliest period of 
the Stone Age, and the implements attributed to it are 
singularly alike in size and form. They seem to indi- 
cate a race of beings who were unprogressive, lacking 
perchance the stimulus of necessity in their mild clim- 
ate and with their few needs. 

The Glacial Age. — But a wonderful change took 
place in their conditions of life. Slowly, from some 
yet unexplained cause, mighty ice-sheets, thousands 
of feet in thickness, gathered around the poles, and 
collected on the flanks of the northern mountains. 
With silent but irresistible might they advanced over 
land and sea, crushing beneath them all animal and 
vegetable life, changing the perennial summer of Eur- 
africa to an Arctic winter, or at best to an Alpine 
climate. The tropical animals fled, the plants perished^ 
and under the enormous weight of the ice-mass, the 



* See W. D. Gooch, '' The Stone Age of South Africa," in /ou7^- 
nal of the Anthropological Institute^ 1881, p. 173, sq., and various 
later reports and discussions in the same periodical. 



92 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES./ 

ocean bottom in the north was depressed a thousand 
feet or more. This in turn brought about material os- 
cillations in the land levels to the south. The bed of 
the Mediterranean sank, that of the Sahara Sea slightly 
rose, leaving the latter little more than a swamp, 
while the former assumed the shape which we now see. 

These alterations in the land areas and climatic con- 
ditions exerted the profoundest influence on the des- 
tiny of man. When with the increasing cold the,other 
animals native to warm regions had fled or perished, 
he remained to encounter with undaunted mind the 
rigors of the boreal climate. Instead of depressing or 
extinguishing him, these very obstacles seem to have 
been the spurs to his intellectual progress. 

Men were still in the lower stages of culture, with 
no knowledge of metal, not capable of polishing stones, 
without a domestic animal or trace of agriculture. 
Yet everywhere these artisans possessed skill and 
sentiments far above that of the highest anthropoid 
ape described by the zoologist. They knew the use 
of fire, they constructed shelters, they dwelt together 
in bands, they possessed some means of navigating 
streams, they ate both vegetable and animal food, they 
decorated themselves with colored earth and orna- 
ments, they wielded a club, they twisted fibres into 
ropes and strings, if occasion required they fastened 
together skins for clothing. All this is proved by a 
careful study of what tools and implements they have 
left us. 

Development into Races. — Whatever may have been 



WHEN RACES BEGAN. 93 

the physical type of men at their beginning, in culture 
they were upon the same level for a long while after 
they had dispersed over the globe. 

When, where and how did they develop into the 
several distinct races that we now know? 

We can answer these questions, not fully, but to 
some extent. 

Man developed into certain strongly marked sub- 
species or races long before the dawn of history. 
More than six thousand years ago the racial traits of 
the black, the white, and the yellow races, and even of 
their subdivisions, were as pronounced and as inef- 
faceable as they are to-day. This we know from the 
representations on the Egyptian monuments of the 
third and sixth dynasties, from the comparative study 
of ancient skulls, and from the uniform testimony of 
the earliest writings, wherever we find them. 

This permanent fixation of traits, this profound im- 
pression of peculiar features, was probably no rapid 
process, but a very slow one. It took place between 
the close of the glacial epoch and the proto-historic 
period. This interim gives time enough ; at the lowest 
calculation, it was twenty thousand years, while others 
have placed it at a hundred thousand. The division 
of the species into races unquestionably was completed 
long before the present geologic period, and under con- 
ditions widely diverse from those now existing."^ 

* This opinion was long ago expressed by the distinguished geol- 
ogist, d' Omalius d' Halloy : " Tout nous porte a croire que les dif- 
ferences que presente le ge^&e humain remontent a un ordre de 



94 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

As within these wide Hmits of time we can reply to 
the question when the races became such, so within 
similar broad boundaries of space we can answer 
where their pecuhar types were developed. 

At the dawn of history, all the clearly marked sub- 
species of man bore distinct relations in number and 
distribution to the great continental areas into which 
the habitable land of the globe is divided. Nearly the 
whole of Europe and its geographical appendix, North 
Africa, were in the possession of the white race; the 
true negro type w^as limited to Central and Southern 
Africa and its appended islands ; the yellow or Mon- 
golian type was scarcely found outside of Asia; and 
the American sub-species was absolutely confined to 
that continent. 

The '' Areas of Characterizationf' — In claiming that 
each sub-species had its origin and developed its phys- 
ical pecularities in the land areas here assigned to it, 
the ethnographer is supported by the unanimous ver- 
dict of modern zoological science. '' Whatever be the 
cause,'' writes the Rev. Samuel Haughton, '' the dis- 
tribution of fauna shows clearly that forces have been 
at work, developing in each great continent animal 
forms peculiar to itself, and differing from the animal 
forms developed by other continents.'' ''' 

choses anterieur a 1' etat actuel du globe terrestre." Des Races Hu- 
mames^ p. ii (Paris, 1845). This is also the result of recent studies. 
See Prof. Edward S. Morse, on " Man in the Tertiaries," in the 
American Natm'alist, 1884, p. 10 10. 

* Lectu7'es on Physical Geography^ p, 273. (London, 1880.) 



t^ 



AREAS OF CHARACTERIZATION. 95 

In ethnography, those geographical areas whose 
physical conditions have left a durable impress on 
their human inhabitants have been called either '' geo- 
graphical provinces'' (Bastian) or ''areas of charac- 
terization'' (de Quatrefages). I prefer and shall 
adopt the latter as more indicative of the meaning of 
the term. It signifies that like physio-geographical 
conditions prevailing over a given area inhabited for 
many generations by the same peoples have impressed 
upon them certain traits, physical and psychical, which 
have become hereditary and continue indeterminately, 
even under changed conditions of existence. 

This general law is the recognized basis of modern 
scientific ethnography."^ It is open to numerous limi- 
tations, and its application must never be made with- 
out the consideration of accessory and modifying cir- 
cumstances. For instance, certain areas are much 
more potent than others in the influence they exert on 
man : some act more powerfully on his mind than on 
Jiis body, or the reverse ; some peoples are more sus- 
ceptible to physical influences of a given class than 
others ; and the length of time required is variable. 

* See A. Bastian, Zti7' Lehre von de7t Geographischen Provinzen 
(Berlin, 1886) ; A. De Quatrefages, Histoire Generale des Races Hu~ 
niaiftes^ p. 333, (Paris, 1889) ; Dr. Thomas Achelis, Die E^itzvick- 
ehing-der Modernen Ethnologie, s. 65, (Berlin, 1889). Agassiz was the 
first to announce (in 1850) that the different races of man are dis- 
tributed over the world in the same zoological provinces as those in- 
habited by distinct species and genera of mammals. This fact is 
coming more and more to be the accepted axiom for the study of 
racial development. (Compare Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 169). 



96 



BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 












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PROPOSED CLASSIFICATION. 97 

According to the analogy of other organic beings, 
man would have been more impressible to. his sur- 
roundings in the early history of his existence as a 
species, the young, either as an individual or a genus, 
being more plastic than the old. Furthermore, in his 
then condition of culture, or absence of culture, he 
had less to oppose to the assaults of his environment. 

Classification of Races. — It is not possible in the 
present status of the science of man to point out pre- 
cisely how the various conditions of the great conti- 
nental areas reacted on the homogeneous primitive 
type to develop the races as we know them. The 
same difficulty encounters us with other animals and 
with plants. We know, however, that at the dawn of 
history each of these areas was peopled by nations re- 
sembling each other much more than they resembled 
nations of any of the other areas. 

In addition to the great continents there were many 
lesser regions, peninsulas and islands, usually on the 
borders of the main areas of characterization, where 
intermingling of types was sure to arise, and other 
types be formed, who in turn. received some particular 
impress from their environment. 

These considerations prompt me to offer the follow- 
ing as the most appropriate scheme in the present con- 
dition of science for the subdivision of the species 
Man into its several races or varieties. 

I. The Eurafrican Race. — Traits. — Color white, 
•hair wavy, nose narrow, jaws straight, skull variable, 
languages inflectional, religions ideal. 
7 



98 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

II. The Austafrican Race. — Traits. — Color black, 
hair woolly, nose flat, jaws protruding, skull long, 
languages agglutinative, religions material. - 

III. The Asian Race. — Traits. — Color yellowish 
or brownish, hair straight, nose flat or medium, jaw^s 
straight, skull broad and high, languages isolating or 
agglutinative, religions material. 

IV. The American Race. — Traits. — Color cop- 
pery, hair straight, nose narrow, jaws straight, skull 
variable, languages incorporating, religions ideal. 

V. Insular or Litoral Peoples. — Traits. — Color 
dark, hair lank or wavy, languages agglutinative. 

In this scheme the more prominent and permanent 
traits are named first. While individuals of pure 
blood can easily be found in all the races who do not 
correspond in all particulars to these descriptions, I do 
not hesitate to assert that ninety-five per cent, of the 
whole of the pure blood of any of the races here classi- 
fied will correspond to the standards given. 

Subdivisions of Races. — The further subdivisions 
of ethnography follow to some extent the important 
doctrine of the '' areas of characterization,'' that is, 
they are geographical ; but as the classification of men 
advances in minuteness, other considerations become 
paramount, notably, language and government. 
These elements allow us to subdivide a race into its 
branches \ a branch into its stocks; a stock into its 
groups, and these again into tribes, peoples, or nations. 

Classified in this manner, the human species presents 
the subdivisions shown on the adjacent scheme: 



GENERAL ETHNOGRAPHIC SCHEME. 

General Ethnographic Scheme, 



99 



1 

Race. 


Traits. 


Branches. 


Stocks. 


Groiips or Peoples. 








( 


I. Libyan. 






I. 

South Medit- 


I. Hamitic. •< 


2. Egyptian. 




Color white. 


1 


3. East African. 
r. Arabian. 


Ell raf ri- 




erranean. 


2. Semitic. •< 


2. Abyssynian. 


Hair wavy. 




I 


3. Chaldean. 


can. 




II. 

North Medit- 


r. Euskaric. 


r. Euskarian. 




Nose narrow. 


2. Aryac. 


Indo -Germanic or 
Celtindic peoples. 






erranean. 


3. Caucasic. 


Peoples of the Cau- 
casus. 






I. 


I. Central African. 


Dwarfs of the Congo. 






2. South African. 


Bushmen, Hottentots. 




Color black or 


Negrillo. 


I. Nilotic. 


Nubian. 




dark. 




1. Soudanese. 




A u s t af ri- 
can. 


Hair frizzly. 


II. 

Negro. 


3. Senegambian. 

4. Guinean. 






Nose broad. 


III. 


I. Bantu. 


Caffres and Congo 






Negroid. 


tribes. 






.■\ i 


I. Chinese. 


Chinese. 






2. Thibetan. 


Natives of Thibet. 




Color yellow 
or olive. 


binitic. J 


3. Indo-Chinese. 


Burmese, Siamese. 




r 


I. Tun gu sic. 


Manchus, Tungus. 


Asian. 


Hair straight. 


1 


2. Mongol ic. 


Mongols, Kalmucks. 




II. J 

Sibiric. ] 


3. Tataric. 


Turks, Cossacks. 




Nose medium. 


4. Finnic. 


Finns, Magyars. 




1 
1 


5. Arctic. 


Chukchis, Ainos. 






L 


6. Japanic. 


Japanese, Koreans. 






r 


1. Arctic. 


Eskimos. 




Color coppery. 


I. 1 

Northern. ] 


2. Atlantic. 


Tinneh, Algonkins, 
Iroquois. 




Hair straight 




3. Pacific. 


Chinooks,Kolosh,etc. 


American. 


II. J 


I. Mexican. 


Nahuas, Tarascos. 




or wavy. 


Central. 1 


2. Isthmian. 


Mayas, Chapanecs. 




Nose medium. 


in. 


I. Atlantic. 


Caribs, A r a w a k s , 

Tupis. 
Chibehas, Qquichuas. 






Southern. ) 


2. Pacific. 




Color dark. 


T. ( 


I. Negrito. 


Mincopies, Aetas. 


Insular 

and 
Literal 
Peoples. 


Hair wavy or 


Negritic. 1 


2. Papuan. 

3. Melanesian. 


New Guineans. 
Feejeeans, etc. 


frizzly. 


II. j 


I. Malayan. 


Malays, Tagalas. 




Malayic. ( 


2. Polynesian. 


Pacific Islanders. 


Nose medium 


III. j 


I. Australian. 


Australians. 




or narrow. 


Australic. | 


2. Dravidian. 


Dravidas, Mundas. 



That these distinctions may be plain I append defi- 
nitions of the ethnographic terms employed. 

L.ofC. 



100 BEGINNINGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

Race, — A variety or sub-species of the species Man, 
presenting a number of distinct and permanent (he- 
reditary) traits of the character above described. 

Branch. — A portion of a race separated geographi- 
cally, linguistically, or otherwise, from other portions 
of the race. 

Stock.— A portion of a branch united by some 
prominent trait, especially language, offering pre- 
sumptive evidence of demonstrable relationship. The 
individual elements of a stock are its peoples. 

A group consists of a number of these peoples who 
are connected together by a closer tie, geographical, 
linguistic, or physical, than that which unites the mem- 
bers of the stock. 

A tribe is a body of men collected under one gov- 
ernment. They are presumably of the same race and 
dialect. 

A nation, on the other hand, is a body of men under 
one government, frequently of different languages and 
races. Its members have no presumed relationship 
further than that they belong to the same species. 

There are some other terms the precise meaning of 
which should be defined before we proceed, the more 
so as there is not that uniformity in their use among 
ethnographers which were desirable. 

This very word ethnos, with its adjective ethnic, is 
an example. What is an ethnos? I know no better 
word for it in English than a people, as I have already 
explained this word, — one of the elements of a stock all 
whose members, there is reason to believe, have a de- 



MEANING OF TERMS. lOl 

monstrable relationship. Thus we should speak of 
the Aryan stock, made up of the Latin, Greek, Celtic 
and other peoples. The relationship among the mem- 
bers of a people is closer than that between the mem- 
bers of a stock. People corresponds to the Old Eng- 
lish folk (German Volk), but folk in the modern 
English scientific terms '' folk-lore," '' folk-medicine," 
has acquired a different signification. 

Culture and civilization are other terms not always 
correctly employed. The former is the broader, the 
generic word. All forms of human society show 
more or less culture ; but civilization is a certain stage 
of culture, and a rather high one, when men unite 
under settled governments to form a state or common- 
wealth (civitas) with acknowledged individual rights 
(civis). This presupposes a knowledge of various 
arts and developed mental powers. 

Much attention was paid by older writers to dividing 
the progress of culture into a number of stages or 
stadia. One of these, an American author, Lewis H. 
Morgan, suggested an elaborate scheme according to 
which the periods of man's development should cor- 
respond with historical conditions of culture, and these 
he divided into lower, middle and upper states of 
savagery, barbarism, and civilization, each character- 
ized by the introduction of some new art. 

The problem is far too complicated to admit of any 
such mechanical solution. The possession of a given 
art, as the bow and arrow, or smelting iron, does not 
lift a people, nor is it an indication of their culture. 



I02 BEGIXXIXGS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF RACES. 

Peoples low in one point are high in others ; they de- 
velop along different lines, with scarcely a common 
measure, and their place in a general scheme must be 
determined by an exhaustive investigation of all their 
powers and conquests, and perhaps a comparison with 
some other standards than those which we have been 
brought up to consider the best. 



LECTURE IV. 



THE EURAFRICAN RACE; SOUTH MEDITERRANEAN 
BRANCH. 

Contents. — The White Race. Synonyms. Properly an African 
Race ; relative areas ; purest specimens. Types of the White 
Race; Libyo-Teutonic type; Cymric type ; Celtic type; Euscaric 
type. Variability of traits. Primal home of the White Race not 
in Asia, but in Eurafrica. Early migrations and subdivisions. 
North Mediterranean and South Mediterranean Branches. 

A. — The South Mediterranean Branch. 

I. The Hamitic Stock. Relation to Semitic. i. The Libyan 
Group. Location. Peoples included. Physical appearance. The 
Libyan blondes : languages. Early history ; European affiliations ; 
relations to Iberian tribes ; the names /^eri and Berberi. Govern- 
ment. Migration. The Etruscans as Libyans. Later history; 
present culture. Syrian Hamites and their influence. 2. The 
Egyptian Group. Kinship to Libyans. Physical appearance. The 
stone age in Egypt. Antiquity of Egyptian culture. Its influence. 
Physical traits. 3. The East African Group. Relations to Egypt. 

II. The Semitic Stock. — First entered •Arabia from Africa. 
I. The Arabian Group. Early divisions and culture- The Arabs. 
Physical types ; mental temperament ; religious idealism. 2. The 
Abyssinian Group. Tribes included. Period of migration. Con- 
dition. 3. The Chaldean Group. Tribes included. The modern 
Jew. 

The leading race in all history has been the White 
Race. It is proper therefore that it should have 
our chief attention in the study of the distribution of 

(103) 



104 



THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 










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WHERE THE WHITES LIVED. I05 

the species. By some writers it is called the Cau- 
casian, by others the Japetic, and by others again the 
European race — all inaccurate terms, for the race 
never originated in the Caucasus, never descended 
from the mythical Japetus or Japheth, and when first 
it appeared on the horizon of history, its most exten- 
sive possessions and the seats of its highest culture 
were not in Europe, nor yet in Asia, but in Africa. 

This statement may astonish you, and I know no 
writer who has properly emphasized the fact that the 
white race is geographically and historically an 
African race. I have calculated with some care the 
area of its control of the three continents when their 
inhabitants first became known. The results are 
these : The white race then possessed : ^ 

In Asia .... 2,500,000 square miles. 
In Europe . . . 3,000,000 '' '' 

In Africa . . . 3,500,000 '' " 

These figures vindicate for the race the title I have 
given it — Eurafrican. 

More than this : the purest and finest physical speci- 
mens of the white race always have been and still are 

* This calculation includes in Asia the Arabian peninsula, Syria, 
the Iranic regions, most of Asia Minor and the Caucasus ; but ex- 
cludes Hindostan, the occupation of which by the Aryans is within 
the historic period. In Africa it embraces the tract from the At- 
lantic to the Red Sea, and from the Mediterranean to the Sudan, 
nearly all of which was held by the Hamitic peoples when we first 
learn about it. In Europe it includes the whole continent south of a 
line^drawn from the mouth of the Volga, through St. Petersburg to 
the Atlantic. 



I06 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

found native to African soil; and the leading nations 
of the race, those who have most contributed to its 
glory, and to the advance of the civilization of the 
world, either have resided in Africa or can be traced 
to it as their ancestral home. 

Types of the White Race. — Let us first define the 
characteristics, physical and mental, of the white race. 

In one of its pronounced types, the individuals are 
blondes, tall in stature, the eyes blue or grey, the hair 
yellow or reddish and wavy, the beard full, the nose 
narrow and prominent (leptorhin), the chin well de- 
fined, the jaws straight (orthognathic), the skull long 
(dolichocephalic) or medium, the eyes narrow (micro- 
semes), the supra-orbital ridges rather prominent, the 
face moderately oval. 

This is the typical appearance of the ancient Goths, 
Teutons and Scandinavians, and of the modern 
Swedes and Germans. It was also that of the ancient 
Libyans, and is still preserved in the greatest purity 
among their descendants in Morocco and Algiers; 
hence I shall call it the Libyo-Teutonic type. 

A second type is also tall in stature, but red-haired, 
freckled complexion, the face and forehead broad, 
the cheek bones prominent, the eyes nearly circular 
(megasemes), the jaws and mouth projecting (progna- 
thic), the skulls broad and high (brachycephalic- 
hypsistenocephalic), the chin square and firm. 

This is the type we see preserved in some of the 
Highland Scotch clans, and in the " Tuatha de Dan- 
ann '' of Ireland, recalling the large-limbed and red- 



CELTIC TYPES. IO7 

haired '' Caledonians '' of Tacitus, and those ancient 
Britons who, under Queen Boadicea, withstood so 
vahantly the Roman legions. The Gauls or Cimbri 
of Belgium and northern France were of this type, 
and hence it has been called the ^' Cymric '^ tyjpe. 

But there is a second Celtic type, also of vast anti- 
quity, claimed by some to be the only pure form. In 
it the skull is also broad — broader than the former 
variety ; but the stature is undersized, the hair and 
eyes dark-brown, the complexion brunette, the orbits 
rounded, the forehead full. Modern representatives 
of this type are the dark clans of the Highlanders, the 
Irish west of the river Shannon, the Manx, the Welsh, 
the Bretons of France, the Auvergnats, the Walloons 
of Belgium and the Ladins of eastern Switzerland. 

The most ancient known seats of these dark Celts 
were in extreme western Europe and the isles adja- 
cent. This location points them out as one of the 
oldest peoples in Europe, whether their presence is 
explained by immigration or autochthonous descent. 
Part of their possessions in early historic times was in 
the Iberian peninsula, along the Cantabrian mountains 
in northern Spain. Here they were in immediate con- 
tact with members of the white race of a different 
type, the Euscarians or Basques. 

In them the stature is medium, the form symmetri- 
cal, hair and eyes are dark but rarely black, the com- 
plexion dark and sallow, the face oval, and the skull 
long, the length being in the posterior (occipital) 
region. Although the last mentioned is an important 



I08 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

distinction between the Celtic and the Euskaric sknll, 
there is unquestionably a closer resemblance physi- 
cally between the Celts and Basques, who speak 
totally diverse tongues, than between the Celts and 
Cymri, whose tongue was the same. 

In these four typical groups from the extreme west 
of Europe we find sharp contrasts within limited areas, 
among peoples some of whom are unquestionably 
consanguine. Two of the groups, the Teutonic and 
Cymric, belong in color and hai^ and stature to the 
blonde type, but differ profoundly in shape of skull 
and facial bones ; the two others belong to the brunette 
type, but dift'er equally in osseous character. In 
general physical traits the Celtic differs less from the 
Euskaric than from the Cymric type, as was recog- 
nized by the historian Tacitus. 

These facts bring out an ethnic principle of im- 
portance — the variability of traits within the racial 
limits — and this becomes more marked as the race is 
higher in the scale of organic development. No race 
remains closer to its type than the Austafrican, none 
departs from it so constantly as the Eurafrican. 
Wherever we find the unmixed white race we find its 
blonde and brunette varieties, its prognathic and 
orthognathic jaws, its long-skulled and broad-skulled 
heads. '^ To establish genealogic schemes exclusively 

* One of the leading European students of anatomical racial type 
is Dr. J. Kollmann, of Basle. He claims that there are four funda- 
mental skull types in that continent : 

I. Narrow faced, brachycephalic. 



CRADLE OF THE RACE. IO9 

upon these differences, as has been the work of so 
many Hving anthropologists, is to build houses of 
cards. 

These contrasts are presented to us daily. The 
researches of Virchow, De Candolle, Kollmann, and 
many others, prove that in the same city, in the same 
family, the children to-day are born brunettes or 
blondes, dark or light eyed, to some degree broad or 
narrow skulled, with but partial reference to their 
parents' peculiarities. The aberrant types are usually 
about twenty per cent, of the whole. It seems gener- 
ally to have been so in the unmixed white race wher- 
ever located. 

All such variations, however, remain strictly within 
the racial lines, and are not approximations to other 
races. Each race retains to-day the characteristics of 
its earliest representatives, so far as we know them. 

Primal Home of the White Race. — Where should 
we look for these earliest representatives, for the primal 
home of the Eurafrican race? The usual answer has 
been ^' in Asia," but now that answer is rejected by 
all the younger and most earnest ethnologists. 



2. Narrow faced, dolichocephalic. 

3. Broad faced, brachycephalic. 

4. Broad faced, dolichocephalic. 

These forms he believes have been steadily perpetuated and have 
undergone no change, except by intermarrying; they bear no rela- 
tion to intellectual ability, and they recur in nations of the same lan- 
guage, customs and history. " Ethnic unitv in Euroue rests not 
upon racial identity, but racial (anatomical) diversity. Verhaftd. der 
Berliner Anthrop. Geseil., 1889, s. 332.) 



no THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

A steady stream of information has of late been con- 
tributed by the sciences of hnguistics, palaeontology, 
pre-historic archaeology and racial anatomy,- sufficient 
to convince even the skeptical that not Asia, but the 
western water-shed of the Eastern Continent, was the 
area of characterization vhich developed this race with 
its marked physical traits and singular mental endow- 
ments. In the previous lecture I have shown you that 
man himself probably came into being as such within 
the limits of that region which I have described as 
Eurafrica; and as its conditions -were such as to foster 
his transformation from some inferior primate, so they 
continued, though profoundly altered, to favor his 
growth, as they still do continue to-day. It is by no 
mere accident or result of political manoeuvres that 
western Europe has for two thousand years produced 
the mightiest nations and greatest minds of the earth. 

The discussion of the precise locality where in Eu- 
rope the primitive man developed into the white race 
has occupied many learned pens in the last score of 
years. But by nearly all of them the discussion has 
been limited to the birthplace of merely the Aryan 
linguistic stock — an unfortunate narrowness of view, 
which has prevented a comprehensive grasp of the 
question at issue."^ 

* A more appropriate view was taken by Canon Isaac Taylor at 
the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of 
Science in 1889. He defended the thesis that the human race origi- 
nated in Europe and bifurcated into the Asian and African branches. 
(See Nature^ 1889, No. 40, p. 632.) 



6RIGIN OF WHITE RACE. HI 

The Aryan peoples present by no means the only, 
nor yet the purest types of the white race. I have 
seen quite as noble blondes among the Kabyles of the 
Djurjura as in Denmark, quite as handsome brunettes 
among the Basques of the Pyrenees as among the 
Celts of France or the Italians. A broad construction 
of the question must include all these, and in this 
spirit I approach it. 

We must search for the first abode, the primitive 
*^ area of characterization " of the white race : 

1. Where its most ancient residence and greatest 
■ numbers were in earliest historic times. 

2. Where the prehistoric remains prolong that resi- 
dence most remotely back. 

3. Where the earliest forms of. linguistic structure 
continue to exist in large communities. 

4. Where its purest types are retained in consider- 
able numbers. 

5. Where the climatic conditions are favorable to 
the physical traits of the race. 

If we can select a locality in which all of these argu- 
ments unite, the cumulative evidence is so powerful 
that we may consider the question settled. 

I have already shown that at the dawn of history 
the white race possessed either in Europe or Africa a 
far larger area than in Asia, and possessed it prac- 
tically exclusively. The most recent researches in 
the pile dwellings of the Swiss lakes and the plain of 
the Po show that the same race inhabited them from 
the classic period of Greece to far back in the stone 
age. 



112 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

The most ancient shell-heaps or kitchen-middens 
on the shores of Portugal contain skulls of the pecu- 
liar type of the Basques of to-day. The hiatus or gap 
which was once supposed to exist between palaeolithic 
and neolithic culture in France has been bridged over 
by numerous observations, showing that the same race 
continued to live and grow there."^' As for language, 
every linguist recognizes the agglutinative type of the 
Basque, and the semi-agglutinative character of the 
Berber as more antique forms than the inflectional 
caste of Aryan or Semitic tongues. Nowhere else do 
white tribes speak an agglutinative tongue, except a 
few in the Caucasus, where we know they settled at 
a comparatively recent period. 

The purest types of the whites in any large number 
have always been found in Western Europe and North- 
western Africa. There the blondes were represented 
by the Suevi, the Goths, the Vandals, the Cymri, the 
Berbers ; the brunettes by the Euskarians, the Celts, 
and the native Italic tribes. In the Orient, the Parsees, 
the high-caste Brahmins, the Siagosch of the Hindu 
Kusch, and some Caucasian tribes, have by close inter- 
marriage retained in a measure the traits of the race; 
but confessedly not in the same distinctness as the 
nations of Western Europe; nor do the Semitic peo- 
ples of Asia present the purity of the type with any- 
thing like the distinctness of the descendants of the 
Libyans in the valleys of the Atlas. Finally, we do not 

* For a recent summary of the evidence on this point consult Isaac 
Taylor, Origin of the Aryans^ p. 129, sq. (London, 1890.) 



EARLY MIGRATIONS. II3 

anywhere in Asia find the physical conditions favor- 
able to the development of the white race — the moist, 
cool, cloudy climate, the extensive shady forests cover- 
ing broad areas of lo\y elevation, with absence of malaria 
and diminished demand on the chylopoietic organs. 

Early Migrations and Subdivisions. — It is not neces- 
sary to suppose that the different peoples of the race 
developed themselves from one central point. The 
contrary is more probable. 

Beginning at the extreme West of Europe, and its 
appendix North Africa, the race pursued an easterly 
course, divided by the great intervening sea of the 
Mediterranean into two sections, which for conveni- 
ence I designate as the '' North Mediterranean " and 
the " South Mediterranean '' branches, though it will 
be seen that these geographical limits are not to be 
taken absolutely. 

The North Mediterranean branch embraces as its 
most important member the Indo-Germanic peoples. 
When first heard of in history, this stock extended 
along the shores and islands of Europe from Cape 
Finisterre to the Gulf of Finland, occupying all of 
Central Europe and much of Asia Minor, the regions 
of Modern Persia, and at a later date the southern 
vales of the Himalayas. Its northern limits have al- 
ways been in contiguity with the Asian or Yellow 
race. Stretch a line on the map from Singapore to 
vSt. Petersburg, continue it to the Atlantic, and you 
have roughly the ethnic boundary which has ever sep- 
arated the races, and does so to-day. 



114 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

In western Europe, south of the Aryac was the 
Euskaric stock, occupying central Spain, central and 
southern France, portions of Italy, and various islands 
in the Mediterranean. 

As speaking- a language of a different family from 
the prevailing inflectional type of the race, it is spoken 
of as '' allophyllic.'' It does not stand alone in this 
respect. Some of the white Caucasian tribes speak 
similar agglutinative tongues, and it is supposed by 
some that the ancient Pictish, Illyrian, Lycian, Van, 
and Etruscan were of similar character. Probably 
many such languages obtained which are now extinct. 

The South Mediterranean Branch consists of two 
related stocks, which have been called the Hamitic and 
the Semitic. These names are not objectionable, in so 
far as they indicate a distant genealogic unity, still re- 
cognizable, between the two branches ; but should not 
in any way be accepted as acknowledging as historic 
facts the myth of the Deluge and their origin in Asia. 
The reverse is true. The migrations of both stocks 
have been from west to east, and the two great 
branches of the White Race entering Asia, the one 
by the Bosphorus arid the second by the Isthmus of 
Suez, encountered each other after thousands of years 
of separation in the region where the venerable myth 
locates their point of departure. 

A. The South Mediterranean Branch. 

I shall begin my survey of the race and its distribu- 
tion with the South Mediterranean branch, as that 



THE LIBYANS. 1151 

which has been the more important of the two in his- 
tory, controlHng by far the greater territory, and de- 
veloping the earher and more potent civihzations. It 
has ever been, and still is, the leader in intellectual 
acumen, and the monuments of its achievements, both 
in the realms of thought and action, remain unrivalled 
in the w^orld. With great propriety, therefore, it 
claims our first attention. 

I. The Hamitic Stock. 

The affinity between the Hamitic and Semitic stocks 
is distinctly shown by their physical traits and the 
character of their languages. The latter statement, 
which was long in doubt, has now been acknowledged 
by the most competent students, such as Friedrich 
Miiller and A. H. Sayce.^^ 

Within their own lines the Hamites are divided into 
three groups, the Libyan, the Egyptian and the East 
African groups, each distinguished by physical and 
linguistic differences. 

I, The Libyan Group. 

Of these the Libyan group occupies the region fur- 
thest to the west, and presents the purest type of the 
stock. From time immemorial it has occupied the 
land from the Nile Valley to the Atlantic, and from the 

* See Freidrich Miiller, Grttndriss der Sprachwissenschaft, Bd. III., 
s. 224-5; Sayce, Scieiice of Language, \o\. II., page 178. The latter 
uses the expression that between the old Egyptian, the Libyan, and 
the Semitic tongues " the grammatical agreement is most striking." 



Il6 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

Mediterranean to the Soudan. In the classical geo- 
graphies its tribes are referred to as Numidians, Liby- 
ans, Mauritanians and Getuhans, and at present they 
are known as Berbers, Rifians, and Shilhas in Morocco, 
the Tuariks and Tibbus of the desert, the Kabyles and 
Zouaves in Algeria, the Ghadames, Serkus, Mzabites 
of the south, the Senegas of Senegal, and many others. 
The Guanches, who once inhabited Teneriffe, and are 
now extinct, belonged to the Rifian tribes of this 
stock,''^ and the rulers of the once powerful empire of 
Ghanata, which for centuries before the rise of Moham- 
medanism controlled the valley of the Upper Niger, 
were allied to the Moroccan family. f Arab historians 
of the seventh century tell us that at that time the 
Berbers were "the lords of Maghreb (Africa), from 
the Arabian Gulf to the western ocean, and from the 
middle sea to the Soudan." $ 

The physical appearance of the Libyan peoples dis- 
tinctly marks them as members of the White Race, 
often of uncommonly pure blood. As the race else- 

* On the Guanches, consult the various works of Sabin Berthelot, 
Dr. Verneau, and later J. Harris Stone in Proceedings of the Bi'itish 
Associatio7i for the Adva7icenie7it of Science^ 1888, p. 851. The last- 
mentioned dwells on the many similarities of their arts to those of 
the Egyptians. 

t Barth is of opinion that the Berbers conquered the Sahara, 
not from blacks, but " from the sub-Libyan race, the Leucsethiopes 
of the ancients, with whom they intermarried " ( Travels hi Africa^ 
Vol. I., 340). This is, I think, the correct opinion, and not that the 
Sahara was occupied by the negroes. 

I Ritter, Erdkmtdey Bd. I., s. 561. 



THE LIBYAN BLONDES. Il7 

where, they present the blonde and brunette type, the 
latter predominant, but the former extremely well 
marked. Among the Kabyles in Algeria, I have seen 
nuany fine specimens of blondes, with yellow hair, 
light eyes, auburn beard, and tall stature. An Eng- 
lish traveller who visited last year some remote vil- 
lages in the mountains of Morocco, describes their 
inhabitants as '' for the most part fair, with blue eyes 
and yellow beards, perfectly built and exceedingly 
handsome men." '^ This has been from the earliest 
times the characteristic of the Libyans, and there is 
abundant evidence that it was more general in former 
centuries than it is now. The Guanches of Teneriffe 
are described by the first voyagers as unusually tall 
and fair, their yellow^ hair reaching below their waists. f 
The Greek poet Callimachus, who was librarian of 
the famous library at Alexandria two hundred and 
fifty years before the Christian era, applies the same 
adjective ^avOix^^ blonde or auburn, to the Libyan women, 
which Strabo and other Greeks do to the Goths and 
blonde Celts of Germany. :j: 

* weaker B. Harris, in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical So- 
ciety^ 1889, P- 490- 

t For numerous authorities, see Sabin Berthelot, Bulletin de la So- 
ciete d'' Ethnoloqie, 1845, P- ^-^' ^Q-' ^^"^^ ^^^^ Antiqiiites Canariennes 
(Paris, 1879). 

I The early (rreek geographer known as Scylax, also speaks of the 
Libyan men as blondes, and very handsome. For a recent and able 
discussion of this subject, consult F. Borsari, Geograjica Ethnologica 
e Storica delta Tripolitana, p. 23, sq. (Naples, 18S8.) The French 
writers Broca, P'aidherbe, etc., have also written copiously on the 
Libyan blondes. 



Il8 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

Long before this, again, in monuments of the XIXtH 
dynasty of Egypt, the Libyans are painted as of a pro- 
nounced blonde type, with Hght eyes and skins, and 
are mentioned by a term which signifies fair or 
blonde." The extended researches of ethnologists on 
this point have accumulated a mass of facts proving 
that the ancient Libyans were in appearance strikingly 
similar to the Xorth Germans and Scandinavians^ hav- 
ing a fair skin, yellow or auburn hair, blue or grey 
eyes, full blonde beards, the face medium, the skull 
dolichocephalic, the orbital ridges prominent, the chin 
square and firm, forehead vertical or slightly retreating, 
the stature tall, and the body powerful. j 

This identity of type impressed me very much 
among the Kabyles, and I note that the German eth- 
nologist, Ouedlinfeldt, who was among the Berbers in 
]\Iorocco lately, writes of them : " I very often met in- 
dividuals with flaxen hair and blue eyes, who in face 
and form corresponded perfectly to the ordinary type 
of our Xorth German people.":}: For this reason, I 
give it the name of the '' Libyo-Teutonic *' type. 

* The Tahennu. Riwlinson, History of Ancie)it Egypty Vol. II. 
p. 292. 

t As distinguished from the Arab, Pruner Bey described the Ka- 
byle as " of higher stature, cerebral and facial cranium broader, fore- 
head more vertical, eyebrows less arched, jaws more orthognathic." 
My own studies in Algeria lead me to recognize the correctness of 
these distinctions. Dr. R. Collignon describes what he thinks is the 
most ancient Tunisian type as tall, dolichocephalic (73), mesorrhinic 
(75), narrow face, forehead and chin retreating. He says of the 
blonde element in Tunisia that it is " assez rare, mais un peu par- 
tout." Bull, de la Soc. d' Anthropologie de Paris ^ 1886, pp. 620, 621. 

X Zeitschrift fi'ir Ethnologic, 18S8, s. 115, 



PROTO-SEMITIC LANGUAGES. II9 

In the pure-blooded clans who still dwell in the 
fastnesses of the Atlas and the Djurdjura, this antique 
type is that which is general ; but in the valleys, in the 
desert and in Tunisia the type is darker, having been 
corrupted by admixture with negro, Arabic and other 
stocks."^' The fact which I wish especially to impress 
on you is that nowhere do we find a purer type of 
the white race than in northern Africa, and that this 
was recognized by the earliest writers and records as 
that especially belonging to this stock. 

The languages spoken by the various Libyan peo- 
ples prove on examination to be dialects of one tongue, 
^11 so much alike that a few days' practice will enable 
the speaker of any one of them to express himself in 
another. In its grammatical formation, it is inflec- 
tional with agglutinative tendencies. Its radicals are 
' made up of consonants, the indications of time and 
place being formed by changes in the vowxl sounds. 
In this respect it resembles the Semitic tongues, but 
differs from them in having radicals of one, two, three, 
or four consonants, while they have usually those of 
three consonants only. In many other respects it pre- 
sents analogies to the Semitic dialects, of such a na- 
ture that these latter seem to have developed them- 
selves out of conditions of speech as represented by 
the Libyan. Hence some writers have called it and 
its allied tongues " proto-Semitic languages." It 

* Yet Barth mentions that in the western Sahara one of the most 
powerful of the Berber tribes was called Aiirdgheii^ the yellowy or the 
gold-colored. Travels in Africa^ vol. i, pp. 230, 339. 



120 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

stands in distinct relation to the Coptic or ancient 
Egyptian, and to some East African dialects. 

The Libyans have possessed from time immemorial 
the country in which we find them. They are its 
indigenous inhabitants — all others, as Carthaginians, 
negroes and Arabs, being demonstrably intruders. 
Can we obtain any clue to their monuments in pre- 
historic times by the aid of archaeology and linguist- 
ics? Some able students have thought they could, 
and have brought forward some singular surmises. 
There is a series of structures of huge stones, called 
dolmens, menhirs and cromlechs, extending over 
northern and central France, southern England, north- 
ern Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Algiers, and central 
Tunisia. They are much alike, and seem to have 
been constructed by some one people in very ancient 
tinies. The skulls in them are often long, like those 
of the Libyans and Teutons. Hence several French 
writers have suggested that the ancestors of the white 
Libyans moved from central Europe into Morocco, 
along the line of these megalithic structures."^ 

In spite of a good deal of severe criticism, there re- 
mains much in favor of the view that these remains 
mark a route by which some neolithic people extended 
their conquests. But it seems to me the trend of mi- 
gration was in the other direction, tozvard the east, 

* See Broca, " Sur les blondes, et les monuments megalithiques de 
I'Afrique du Nord," in Revue d^ Anthropologies 1876; and Faidherbe, 
Collection Complete (V Inscriptions Numidiques^ Introduction. (Paris, 

1870.) 



BERBERS AND IBERIANS. 12I 

and not from it. The white race began as such dur- 
ing the glacial epoch ; it could scarcely have developed 
north of the Pyrenees, for the climate was so cold that 
the reindeer, which to-day cannot breed in Stockholm, 
found a suitable home in the valley of the Garonne. 
The Iberian peninsula and the Atlas at that time pos- 
sessed climatic conditions about like those of Great 
Britain to-day. 

In that peninsula, at that time connected with Mo- 
rocco by a land bridge at the straits of Gibraltar, are 
the oldest forms of languages spoken by the race, the 
Euskaric dialects. There is reason to believe that at 
the dawn of history these occupied the centre of the 
peninsula ; north of them, in the Cantabrian moun- 
tains and along the shores of the Bay of Biscay, were 
the Celtiberians, the rear^'uard of the migratory hordes 
of Aryans ; and along the southern shores and in North 
Africa extended the tribes whose direct descendants 
are the Libyan peoples. The name Iberi, Iberians 
applied by the ancients to the inhabitants of the east- 
ern and southern shores of Spain, testifies to this. It 
means in the Libyan tongue freemen, and in the plural 
form berberi or Berbers, is that by wdiich the old 
Egyptians knew them, and which from the same root 
is their own favorite designation to-day."^ 

* In offering this new derivation of the much discussed name 
Berberi or Barbari, one must remember that it has always been the 
name of a powerful tribe in Morocco, the Brebres ; that it was what 
the ancient Egyptians called them (Herodotus) ; and that it is to- 
day a pure Libyan word. Iberru^ is from the verbal root ihra^ they 



122 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

That the Iberians were Hamites, and not Basques, 
has long been suspected, and is plainly the opinion to 
be derived from the statements of the ancients and the 
presence of Libyan proper names in the south of 
Spain. '^ 



are free; ibarbar^ they come forth (Newman, Z/'/^jj/rt:;/ Vocabulary^-^^. 
40, 133). The plural in the Hamitic group was originally formed by 
repetition (F. Miiller, Sprachwissenschaft^ Bd. III., s. 240). Hence 
Berberi may mean either " those who came forth," i.e.^ emigrants, 
or those who go where they list, /. e.^ freemen. This is also the 
meaning of amoshagh^ the generic name of the Touaregs (Barth, 
Ti-avels in Africa, vol. v., page 555). Barth, a high authority, be- 
lieves that the same word ber is the radical of the names Bernu, 
Berdoa, Berauni, etc. The legendary ancestors of the Moroccan 
Berbers (Brebres) was Ber, in which, says Barth, " we recognize the 
name Afer," the /and b being interchangeable in these dialects. 
From " Afer " we have " Africa " [Travels, vol. i., p. 224). One of 
the principal gods of ancient Libya and of the Guanches was Abora, 
or Ibru. See my article " On Etruscan and Libyan Names " in Pro- 
ceedings of the A7ne7'ican Philosophical Society, Feb., 1890. One of 
the Pindaric fragments recites a Libyan tradition to the effect that 
the first man, larbas, sprang from the sun-heated soil, and chose for 
food the sweet acorns of the tree (Lenormant, The Beginnings of 
History, p. 48). In " larbas " we can scarcely fail in recognizing the 
same root bar, the change being by the familiar process of reversal. 

* Early in this century, Bory de St. Vincent maintained the identity 
of the Iberians and Berbers (Essai Geologique, Paris, 1805). Hum- 
boldt argued that there was but one language in old Spain beside the 
Celtic, in spite of the direct assertion of Strabo to the contrary, and 
the well-known fact that many Celtiberic inscriptions cannot be read 
either in Celtic or Basque [Prilficng der Untersuchtingen, etc.,^ § 39). 

The Roman geographer, Rafus Festus Avienus, offers the impor- 
tant correction that the Iberi derived their name, not from the Ebro, 
as is usually stated, but from a stream close to Gibraltar on the At- 
lantic side. 



LIBYAN GOVERNMENT. 1 23 

When the Berber chieftain Tarik crossed the straits 
in the seventh century, and gave to the great rock his 
name (Gibraltar, Djebel-el-Tarik), he was but return- 
ing to seize anew the land from which his ancestors 
had been driven by Carthaginians and Romans. 

From the remotest times the Libyans have had the 
same form of government — village communities, 
united by loose bonds into federations. The Egyp- 
tians referred to them as '' the Nine Bows,'' or Bands, "^ 
the Romans as the '' Quinquigentes," the Five Peo- 
ples, the Arabs as '' Qabail '' or Kabyles, Confeder- 
ates. These confederations were sufficiently power- 
ful, even so far back as 1400 years before Christ, to 
put in the field an army of 30,000 or more men for an 
attack on Egypt ; and that the general culture of their 
country was quite high is shown by the character of 
the spoils obtained by the Egyptians — horses, chariots, 
vessels of brass, silver, copper and gold, swords, cuir- 
asses, razors, etc.f 

" At Iberus hide manat amiiis et locos 
Foecundat unda : plurimi ex ipso ferunt 
Dictos Iberos, non ab illo flumine 
Quod inquietos Vasconas praelabitur." 

— Ora Maritima. 

The two names show that it was a noinen gentile^ and that the 
tribe so known extended along the southern coast. 

It has been recently asserted that many north African place-names 
occur in Spain [Revista de A7ithropologia^ Madrid, 1876, quoted by 
Fligier). 

* The Coptic word is Na-pa-tit^ Bunsen, Egypfs Place in History^ 
Vol. Ill, p. '137. 

t This war is recorded in the celebrated " inscription of Meneph- 



124 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

At that date the nations of the North Mediterra- 
nean branch were yet in the stone age, and the sites of 
Greece and Rome were the homes of savages.* 

It is probable that this defeat of the Libyans by 
the armies of Rhamses gave a serious shock to their 
progress, by disintegrating their growing state. It 
appears that about this time there were various colo- 
nies which migrated to sites on the northern shores of 
the Mediterranean. One of these I have beheved to 
be the Etruscans, who settled on the west coast of 
Italy about icoo years before our era. They were 
tall blondes, dolichocephalic, speaking an un-Aryan 
language, and by their traditions came by sea from 
the south.f 

The Libyans were at times partially under the do- 
minion of the kings of Egypt, and many of them en- 
tered the Egyptian armies as mercenaries. They al- 
lowed the Phenicians peaceably to found the great city 

tah," of the XlXth dynasty. See Records of the Past^No\. W \ 
Bragsch Bey, History of Egypt, Vol. II, p. 129, and the more recent 
studies of these inscriptions by Dr. Max Miiller, in the Proceedings 
of the Society for Biblical Archceology, Vol. VI. 

* As further showing the ancient culture of the Libyans, I may 
note that they constructed stone dwellings before their conquest by 
the Romans. For extracts showing this, see Revue des detix Mondes, 
Dec, 1865. 

t The evidence to this effect I have marshalled in two papers read 
before the American Philosophical Society : " On the Ethnic Affini- 
ties of the Ancient Etruscans " {Proceedings of the A?ner. Phil. Soc, 
Oct., 1889), and " A Comparison of Etruscan and Libyan Names 
(Ibid., Feb., 1890). 



LYBIAN INDEPENDENCE. I25 

of Carthage on their shores, and from these early col- 
onists they learned the art of writing. The alphabet 
which is still preserved among some of their hordes 
is derived from the Punic letters."^ When Carthage 
fell, Rome seized the mastery of the coasts and pro- 
ductive valleys, but her legions never penetrated to 
the inland fastnesses. When the great empire tot- 
tered to its fall, Goths and Vandals poured across and 
over the straits of Gibraltar to found an ephemeral 
empire in Africa; but these cavalry soldiers, know- 
ing to fight only on horseback, scarcely touched the 
confines of the Libyan mountain homes. Even the 
Arabs, sweeping resistlessly across their land in the 
beginning of the eighth century, failed to penetrate 
many of these fastnesses. To this day no Arab dares 
venture into the land of the Rifian Berbers, and many 
a tribe of the Djurjura keeps its customs and its blood 
unaltered by the Koranic laws, or the Semitic in- 
truders, or the Code Napoleon of the French invaders. 
The ancient elements of their culture are still largely 
retained. Among the Kabyle and Touareg tribes of 
to-day, in spite of the liberty authorized by Islam, 
monogamy is the almost invariable rule, the women 
are not only respected, but generally possess most of 
the property, and prostitution is unknown. They are, 
moreover, usually the learned class, and most of the 
'' tifinar '' manuscripts come from the hands of these 

* The most scholarly analysis of this curious alphabet, called the 
tifiiiagh or tifinar^ will be found in Prof. Halevy's Essai d^ Epigra- 
phie Libyqiie (Paris, 1875). 



126 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

fair scribes."^' As to the general character of the Ber- 
bers of Morocco, we may take Sir Joseph Hooker's 
word when he tells us that they are '' decidedly supe- 
rior in intelligence, industry and general activity to 
their neighbors." f 

The wander-loving Libyan tribes pursued other 
journeys far to the east. Following the coast of the 
Mediterranean, they formed settlements on the Syrian 
shore, and extended their possessions into the Mesopo- 
tamian valley, and north into the mountain vales of 
Asia Minor. The Phenicians and Canaanites, the 
Amorites, who were blonde Berbers of true Libyan 
type, the Hittites, and the old Assyrians, who were the 
builders of Babylon and Nineveh, were of Hamitic 
stock, as is shown by the accordance of the ancient 
bibhcal statement with modern linguistic and archae- 
ological research. $ 

* See Duveyrier, Les Totca^'egs dii Nord, p. 339 ; H. Bissuell, Les 
Touaregs de V Ouesty pp. 106, 115 (Alger., 1888), etc. 

t Hooker and Ball, Totir in Morocco^ p. 86. 

\ To Prof. A. H. Sayce is, I think, due the honor of showing that 
the pre-Semitic white race of Palestine was of the Libyan stock. See 
Natii7'e^ 1888, p. 321. He had previously pointed out that the two 
forms of tenses of the Libyan verb '' correspond most remarkably 
with Assyrian forms " {fntroduction to the Science of Language^ Vol. 
IL, p. 180). Rawlinson, in his Stoiy of Phenicia (N. Y., 1889), adopts 
the view that the early Phenicians were Hamites. The epochal dis- 
covery of Halevy, now accepted by Delitzsch and other Assyriblo- 
gists, that the " second " column of the cuneiform inscription is merely 
a Hamito-Semitic dialect in another character, finally destroys the 
" Turanian " hypothesis, and restores the ancient Assyrians to the 
Eurafrican race. 



ANCIENT EGYPT. I27 

From these culture-centres of the Hamitic stock 
flowed the mighty stream of human progress back 
along the southern shores of the Mediterranean to Cy- 
rene and Carthage, and along its northern shores to 
Cyprus, Greece, Italy and beyond ; while the Accadian 
and Summerian learning, preserved for all time in the 
cuneiform wTiting, made its beneficient influence felt 
far into India and China, and reacted beneficially on 
the older wisdom of Egypt, from which it had at first 
largely drawn its inspiration. 

2, The Egyptian Group, 

From this all too hasty survey of this most ancient 
people we must turn to another, akin to it, which has 
played an important, yes, the most important part in 
the culture-history of our species. I refer to the an- 
cient Egyptians. They belonged to the Hamitic stock, 
but wandering eastward from its primal seats cer- 
tainly more than ten thousand years before our era., 
had possessed themselves of the Nile valley from the 
mouth of the stream quite up •to and beyond the first 
cataract. 

Their kinship to the Libyans is proved by numer- 
ous linguistic identities between the ancient Coptic 
and the Libyan dialects, and by their physical appear- 
ance. In color they are yellowish-white, passing to a 
reddish-brown though the women who are not ex- 
posed to the sun would pass in Europe as merely 
dark brunettes. In the bony structure, the skull, the 
face, and the proportions, they assimilate entirely with 



128 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

the white race and the Libyan type. This has been 
shown by the researches of Virchow and others.^ 

The ancient Egyptian is represented to-day by the 
modern Fellah or field-laborer of the Nile. The type 
has been very well preserved, for though the riches 
of this wonderful valley have attracted myriads of 
foreigners in peace and war from the earliest times, all 
have suffered greatly in longevity and fertility com- 
pared to the native population. This type is of 
medium stature, the limbs and body symmetrical and 
delicately moulded; the skull is long, the face oval, 
the hair dark and straight, or slightly curly ; the eyes 
are brown and small, the nose straight, the lips rather 
full, the mouth small, the chin not prominent, the 
beard scanty. 

In all respects, in the pure Copt we must recognize 
a delicate, thorough-bred member of the Eurafrican 
race, in spite of his reddish-brown hue. These traits 
are to be explained by the narrow limits of the Nile 
valley, shut in by trackless deserts from the rest of 
the world. Here for thousands of years lived this 
stock, closely intermarrying, and under climatic con- 
ditions of singular uniformity. 

Whether they were the first inhabitants of the val- 
ley has not been ascertained. Certain it is that at a 

* Virchow, after close studies in Egypt, expressed himself very 
positively that the affinities of the old Egyptian stock were " with the 
Hamites, with the Berbers and Kabyles, the peoples who from the 
remotest times have inhabited the regions of the Atlas." See his 
address in the Cor7-espondenz Blatt de7' deutscheii Celellschaft fur 
Anthropologies Ethnologie tind Urgeschichte^ 1888, p. no. 



THE STONE AGE IN EGYPT. I29 

period long before the date we usually assign to Egyp- 
tian civilization, a people dwelt on the Nile ignorant 
of any implements but those of rough stone. Their 
relics have been found in the stratified gravels of the 
hills, and on the summits of the arid plateaus.* I 
know no reason, however, to suppose that the tribes of 
the Egyptian stone age were other than the ancestors 
of those who were brought under the control of the 
founder of the first dynasty, the historic king Mena. 
This was about 4000 B. C. But previous to him 
the ancient Egyptian priests claimed some 25,000 years 
of occupation under various gods and demi-gods ; and 
the general accuracy of their claim I am not prepared 
to dispute. t Certainly the culture of lower Egypt 
must have been at a high level for thousands of years 
before the date of Mena, or he could never have estab- 
lished the state which we know he did. From all that 
archaeology has yet taught us, we must place the be- 
ginnings of Egyptian civilization earlier than that in 
the valley of the Yang tse Kiang, earlier by far than 

*On the stone age in Egypt, see General Pitt- Rivers, in Journal 
of the AntJwopological Institute^ 188 1, p. 387, sq. ; and especially the 
exhaustive article by Dr. Virchow in Verhandhmgen der Berliiier 
Anthrop. GeselL, 1888, p. 345, sq. As early as 1881 Prof. Henry W. 
Haynes of Boston announced his discovery of palaeolithic stone im- 
plements in Upper Egypt. [Mems. of the Amer. Acad, of Arts and 
Sciences^ Vol. X., p. 357.) The latest contributions to the subject is 
by W. Reiss, Ftmde ans der Steinzeit Aegyptens (Berlin, 1890). 

t M. G. de Lapouge goes quite as far. He writes {Revue d^ An- 
thropologie^ 1887, p. 308), " L' Egypte s' est civilisee pendant notre 
quaternaire, et son plus grand developpement a coincide avec notre 
epoque neolithique." 

9 



r 



130 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

any other on the globe. Its streams have permeated 
all the lands to which the Eurafrican race have ex- 
tended ; fecund as the waters of its own Nile, its ele- 
ments have nourished and developed the best intel- 
lectual powers of the race through all subsequent 
ages ; to it we owe the seeds of our arts, the germs of 
our sciences, the forms of our religion, the schemes of 
our literatures, and the inestimable boon of our written 
language. Look where you will among the most an- 
cient remains of the Old World culture, you find the 
impress of Egypt's hand and mind — in Etruscan 
tombs, in Guanche mummy caves, in treasure houses 
of Mycenae, in Cypriote vaults, in Assyrian mounds, 
under Carthagenian foundations."^ The species Man 
owes nowhere else such gratitude as to these African 
nations of the Eurafrican race. 

The Egyptian presents the best known and com- 
plete type of the psychical traits of the Hamitic stock. 
Unideal, laborious, utilitarian, he was devoted to mate- 
rial progress and the gross animal enjoyments of life. 
His preferred employment was agriculture, his favor- 
ite art the huge in architecture, his religion was a 
polytheism with numberless images and pictures, his 
pleasures were those of the appetite, his hopes of im- 
mortality were bound up with the preservation of the 
present body. 

* " Jusqu' a cette heure," writes A. L. Delattre, in the Bulletin des 
Ajitiquites Africaines^ 1885, p. 242, "les pieces archcologiques de 
notre collection de Carthage, qui remontent incontestablement a la 
periode primitive de 1' histoire de cette ville fameuse, ont toutes le 
cachet egyptien prononce." 



THE MIXED HAMITIC PEOPLES. I3I 

3. The East African Group. 

The singular uniformity of the Egyptian type does 
not allow us to divide it into several branches, and on 
account of its segregated position, it does not seem to 
have had much intercourse with the east African 
group of the Hamitic stock, living to the south of it. 

At present this east African group of the Hamites 
includes the Bed j as and Bilins between the Nile and 
the Red Sea, the Afars or Danakils near the mouth of 
the Red Sea, Gallas and Somalis between the gulf of 
Aden and the Indian ocean, and the adjacent tribes of 
the Agaouas, Adals, Khamirs, and others. In ap- 
pearance these peoples are usually reddish brown in 
color, with dark wavy hair, of moderate stature and 
symmetrical form, the face oval and the skull moder- 
ately long, the nose aquiline and the chin well shaped^ 
and heavier built than the Egyptians. 

Their life is principally nomadic, living in tents of 
skin, and governed by chiefs who rule over small 
communities. The descent is reckoned and property 
passes on the female side. Some are Mahommedans^ 
but hold the faith lightly, and like the Kabyles, attach 
more mportance to the customs of their clan than to 
the precepts of the Prophet. In many parts they 
betray admixture with the Negro tribes to whom they 
are neighbors, and from whom they have always ob- 
tained slaves. 

Thus the Danakils are described as sooty black, 
with scanty beards, thin calves, and thick lips, but with 
features and hair in other respects quite European, 



132 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

their faces rarely prognathic, and their bodies symmet- 
rical.''' The Somalis are lighter in color, but like the 
Danakils, do not cultivate the soil nor establish fixed 
abodes. 

II. The Semitic Stock. 

Owing to the unreasoning acceptance of myths as 
history, it is generally believed that the Semites origi- 
nated in Asia. From what I have already said you 
will appreciate that such an opinion is quite inconsist- 
ent with modern research. We may, at the most, con- 
cede that the peculiar form of their language and cer- 
tain physical traits were developed during their long 
residence in the peninsula of Arabia, where history 
first finds them. But that they entered Arabia in re- 
mote pre-historic times from Africa, and not from 
Asia, is now acknowledged by an increasing number of 
learned and unprejudiced writers. f 

There is a difference of opinion whether this immi- 
gration was by the way of the Isthmus of Suez or the 
Straits of Bab el Mandeb, but the course of their wan- 
derings in Arabia seems to have been from north to 

* Dr. L. Faurot, in Revue d'' Ethnographies 1887, p. 57. 

t See my essay on this subject, The C^^adle of the Semites (Phila- 
delphia, 1890) ; also the able paper of G. Bertin, '' On the Origin of 
the Semites," vi\ Journal of the Anthropological Institute ^ 1882, p. 423, 
sq., and the speculations of R. G. Haliburton, in Proceedings of the 
British Assoc, for the Adv. of Science, 1887, p. 907. An excellent 
summary of the argument that the Semites came from Africa will be 
found in Gifford Palgrave's article on Arabia in the Encyclopedia 
Britannica. 



HIMYARITIC CULTURE. I33 

south, the Ethiopian Semites being distinctly emi- 
grants from the other side of the Red Sea. Hence 
the probabihty is that the ancestors of the ancient 
Arabians wandered from the Libyan plateau, or the 
eastern Atlas, through the Delta into the region of the 
Sinaitic mountains, whence they spread south and 
east, forming several distinct groups."^ 

I. The Arabian Group. 

The first of these included the Arabians proper. At 
a very early period they became divided into a north- 
ern and southern portion, the former represented by 
the Ishmaelites and Bedaw'ins, the latter by the an- 
cient Himyarites, Sabeans and Nabotheans, and the 
modern Ehkili and kindred clans. The Himyaritic 
nations had important cities, and possessed a written 
literature at least 700 B. C, and probably much 
earlier. f The Queen of Sheba, who paid a memorable 
visit to King Solomon, came from one of these cities, 
and her joufiiey is strong testimony to the admiration 
for learning which prevailed in her land, and which 
she so evidently fostered. 

At that time, and for centuries afterwards, there 
were few parts of the world more favored than the 

* The important Berber folk of the Mzabites in Southern Algiers 
are said strongly to resemble Semites, presenting '' a reunion of the 
secondary characteristics of the Jews and Arabs." Revue cf Anthro- 
pologie, 1886, p, 353. 

t The late investigations of E. Glaser in Southern Arabia have 
brought many hundreds of these inscriptions to our knowledge. 



134 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

southern portions of the peninsula. It was known as 
'' Arabia fehx," Araby the Blest, and was famed for 
its abundant products, its spices and perfumes, and the 
wealth and luxury of its inhabitants. Some change 
of climate apparently, and the inroads of the Ishmael- 
itic hordes, quite destroyed this happy condition about 
the fifth century, A. D. The Himyaritic language 
disappeared, the cities were laid waste, many of the 
people migrated to Africa or sank into despised out- 
casts, as the present Ehkili of the Hadramaut. In 
this manner the whole of the great peninsula fell un- 
der the control of the true Arab. 

It is he who preserves in his language the oldest and 
purest form of Semitic speech, and in mind and body 
its most pronounced mental and physical type. He is 
rather tall (1.65), his face oval, the nose straight or 
aquiline, the features sometimes singularly noble and 
prepossessing, the skull long (index 73*^—75^), the 
complexion ruddy rather than brown, when due al- 
lowance is made for the tan, and the hair slightly wavy 
or straight. Crisp hair is looked upon with disap- 
proval, as indicating mixed and ignoble blood.*^ In tem- 
perament the Arab is abstemious, and his powers of 
physical endurance are phenomenal. His mental tem- 
perament is that of an idealist ; he has added nothing 
to the grand creations of plastic art, nothing to inven- 
tions of utility in life, nothing to the marvels of archi- 

* Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta^ Vol. I., p. 102. A_bout five 
per cent, of the Arabs of the Peninsula of Sinai are pure blondes. 
See Revue cT Anthropologies 1886, p. 351. 



SEMITIC INFLUENCE. 135 

lecture or the beauties that appeal to the senses; he 
cares neither for history nor the drama. In his dreams 
he conquers the world, and it falls at his feet; in fact, 
his greatest states have been ephemeral bubbles. 

Yet his dreams have been realized. The Semite has 
conquered the world, and it is at his feet. Twice have 
arisen among his people majestic forms, before whom 
all civilized nations bow, Jesus and Mahomet. 

The religious idealism which led the Semite in the 
days of Moses to reject the images of stone and wood 
and proclaim that God is one, overawed in its later 
expressions the whole of the white race, and now ex- 
tends its sway to the farthest seas. 

Though the Aryan to-day may dislike the Semite 
and doubt of the God whom he preached, let him not 
forget that the first vivid impression of such a great 
idea came from the Semitic stock. If in his marts, 
his diplomacy and his learned professions, he finds the 
Semites still pressing him aside, let him remember 
that this is the people whose destiny seems to be to 
own no country, but to rule all. 

2. The Abyssinian Group 

Of tribes is evidently descended from fugitives from 
the Arabian peninsula. The Ethiopians, or Geez 
(a word meaning emigrants), speak a dialect the near- 
est related to the Himyaritic of the inscriptions. It 
has a literature and an ancient alphabet of its own. 
The Tigre, the Massawa, the Amhara, and, further to 
the south, the Harrari, are Semitic dialects, more or 
less akin to the Et-hiopic. 



136 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

The period when this migration took place is not 
precisely known, but it was at a calculable period be- 
fore the beginning of our era. Quite likely it was 
about the time of the dissolution of the Joktanide 
monarchy in the Hadramaut. There can be no ques- 
tion but that the course of migration at this point was 
from Arabia into Africa. 

The Tigre is the predominant nation of North 
Abyssinia, the Amhara in the south of that region. 
The Harrari extends into the land of the Somalis. 
All these are of Himyaritic descent, but near them 
are a number of later Arab tribes who speak dialects 
of the modern Arabic. These are the Jalin about 
Khartoum, and others near Senaar and Baqqara, west 
of the Nile. There are also many Jews, who have 
inhabited the country from the early centuries of our 
era. 

An infusion of negro blood is visible in much of 
the population. Their color is dark brown, the hair is 
crisp, and the features are negroid. Where this 
mingling is absent, the color is a light or bright 
brown, the face oval, the nose thin, lips not at all 
thick, and the hair wavy and straight. In other 
words, the features are truly European, framed in a 
brown setting. 

The Abyssinians proper have always been an agri- 
cultural, pastoral and manufacturing people. The 
soil is fertile and the climate temperate, but there are 
no large rivers, and communication is difficult. The 
crops are barley, dates, millet, sugar-cane, etc. 



ABYSSINIAN CHRISTIANITY. I37 

Formerly the country was under one ruler, who was 
called the Grand Negus. The late '' Negus/' Theo- 
doras, could put in the field over fifty thousand fight- 
ing men, and made himself so obnoxious to Europeans 
that the English sent an expedition against him in 
1868, and he perished under the ruins of his capital, 
Magdala. 

From the fourth century the principal religion in 
Abyssinia has been Christianity, but in a corrupt form, 
mixed with the ancient heathen observances, such as 
ceremonies at the rise of certain stars, and veneration 
of holy stones and springs. The clergy are numer- 
ous, estimated at about 72,000, and exert a leading 
influence in the state. There are many monks and 
nuns living in cloisters, and possessing extensive 
holdings. The church service is conducted with an 
effort at pomp, and there is a considerable sacred 
literature, of very little value. The influence of the 
religious teaching on the people is scarcely visible 
except in making them fanatical, superstitious and 
averse to enlightenment. Abyssinia thus presents the 
picture of a country which for more than 1500 years 
Jias been a Christian state, and where Christianity has 
wholly failed to render the people moral, intelligent 
or pure. 

J. The Chaldean Group. 

The third group of the Semites was the Chaldean, 
including the Syrians and Arameans, the later As- 
syrians and Babylonians, the Israelites, Samaritans 



138 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

and Jews. All these were from early times deeply 
tinged wth other blood. The Syrians and Chaldeans 
removed first from the Arabian peninsula, and their 
dialects depart the furthest from the pure stock. 
Abraham, the traditional ancestor of the Israelites, left 
northeastern Arabia for Mesopotamia about 2000 
B. C, to dwell in '' Ur of the Chaldees," a city near 
the mouth of the Euphrates. Already the Chaldees 
had secured from the older Hamitic settlers a portion 
of Mesopotamia, and gradually extended their con- 
quests. 

Many of the Syrians united with the Hamitic resi- 
dents on the coast, so that the Phoenicians became 
largely Semitized. All these nations were in constant 
intercourse with the highly developed civilization of 
Egypt, as is shown by the Mosaic books, and from that 
source derived most of the germs of their intellectual 
growth. In spite of their love of travel and commerce, 
in spite of their dispersion over the earth, this group 
has retained a striking individuality. Many ethnog- 
raphers charge it against the Jews that the presence 
of blondes among them, and of brachycephalic heads, 
proves a crossing of the blood. This is not the case. 
The Semitic stock is a markedly white type of the 
race, and in all ages fair complexion, light eyes and 
hair, have been admired as especially beautiful. This 
is repeatedly referred to in the Hebrew Scriptures, and 
is shown by observation among these people at the 
present day.* 

* The statistics in Central Europe show that among the Jews 



THE MODERN JEW. 139 

The physical type of the Jew is well known and 
unmistakable; wavy hair, dark or blonde, full beard, 
eyes soft, nose prominent, rather heavy, with an accen- 
tuated and peculiar outline, lips full, face oval, skull 
medium or long. Nor are his mental traits less fa- 
miliar ; a pliant, supple disposition, a distaste for phys- 
ical labor or the toil of the pioneer or soldier; defi- 
ciency in personal courage; subtlety in monetary 
transactions ; quickness in applying social or individ- 
ual weaknesses to his own benefit ; industry in intellec- 
tual pursuits; love of display and of position; strong 
devotion to family ties. 

This is the Jew as we know him in the tussle of 
modern life, a character prominent in all European and 
American cities, without a nationality, in conflict with 
the prevailing religion, suspected and disliked, but 
wielding an influence out of all proportion to the 
numerical strength of his people. It may be regarded 
as continuing in his person that remarkable intellectual 
superiority which the South Mediterranean Branch of 
the~white race has from the earliest time exerted on 
the history of man. 

there, about 15 per cent, are true blondes, 25 per cent, brunettes, 
and the remamder intermediate. The blondes are generally dolicho- 
cephalic, the brunettes brachycephalic or medium. See Dr. Fligier, 
*' Zur Anthropologie der Semiten," in Mitthiel, der Wiener Anthrop^ 
Gesell.f Bd. IX,, s, 155, sq. 



140 



THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 



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LECTURE V. 



THE EURAFRICAN RACE : NORTH MEDITERRANEAN 
BRANCH. 

Contents.— ^.— The North Mediterranean Branch. 

I. The Euskaric Stock. Basques and their congeners. Physical 
type. Language. 

II. The Aryac Stock. Synonyms. Origin of the Aryans. Sup- 
posed Asiatic origin now doubted. The Aryac physical type. 
The proto-Aryac language. Culture of proto-Aryans. The " prot- 
Aryo-Semitic " tongue. Development of inflections. Proto-Aryac 
migrations. Southern and northern streams. Approximate dates. 
Scheme of Aryac migrations. Divisions, i. The Celtic Peoples. 
Members and location. Physical and mental traits. 2. The Italic 
Peoples. Ancient and modern members. Physical traits. The 
modern Romance nations. Mental traits. 3. The Illyric Peoples. 
Members and physical traits. 4. The Hellenic Peoples. Ancient 
and modern Greeks. Physical type. Influence of Greek culture. 
5. Lettic Peoples. Position and language. 6. The Teutonic 
Peoples. Ancient and modern members. Mental character. 
Recent progress. 7. The Slavonic Peoples. Ancient and modern 
Members. Physical traits. Recent expansion. Character. Rela- 
tions to Asiatic Aryans. 8. The Indo-Eranic Peoples. Arrival in 
Asia. Location. Members. Indian Aryans. Appearance. 
Mental aptitude. 

III. The Caucasic Stock. Its languages. Various groups and 
members. Physical types. Error of supposing that the white 
race came from the Caucasus. 

In my previous lectures I have shown with as much 
detail as my time permits, that the original home 
of the white race was in that portion of the Atlantic 

(141) 



142 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

seaboard which I have called Eurafrica, and which 
includes the present areas of northwestern Africa 
and southwestern Europe. From this region, I have 
pointed out, the race divided into two branches, the one 
moving eastward, south of the Mediterranean sea, the 
other in the same direction, north of this separating 
stream. To-day we shall consider the ethnic history 
of the latter. 

B. The North Mediterranean Branch. 

Unlike the South Mediterranean Branch, whose 
languages present everywhere some degree of resem- 
blance, sufficient to predicate for them a remote com- 
mon origin, the North Mediterranean Branch includes 
several stocks fundamentally diverse. They are the 
Euskaric, the Aryac, and the Caucasic stocks. The 
second of these is by far the most extended and 
important; but, as I have previously observed, it does 
not bear the impress of the highest antiquity, nor 
yet is its location that where we should look for the 
most ancient members of this branch. ' Both these 
conditions are fulfilled by 

J. The Euskaric Stock. 

At present this contains but one group, the Basques, 
residing in the valleys of the Pyrenees, on both the 
Spanish and French frontiers. There is little doubt 
from the linguistic studies of Humboldt and from the 
researches of archaeologists that the Basques once ex- 
tended widely throughout the present area of Spain 



TRAITS OF THE BASQUES. I43 

and Portugal; but I am not inclined to identify them 
with the Iberians of the classical geographers, for rea- 
sons given in my last lecture. There is a great deal 
of evidence that in proto-historic times they occupied 
central and southern France, portions of Italy, Cor- 
sica, Sardinia, perhaps Sicily, and some southern tracts 
of England. Many believe that the ancient Aquitan- 
ians and Ligurians, the Picts and Cantabrians, were of 
this stock, as well as the pre-Aryac tribes of Greece.''' 

I described in my last lecture the Basques as repre- 
sentatives of one of the dark types of the white race, 
with a peculiarly shaped skull, elongated posteriorly.f 
The face is oval, the chin pointed and weak. The 
general aspect indeed of a Basque cranium conveys 
the impression of a feeble character, and such the 
history of the people shows them to have been. They 
never contributed anything to the advance of the race, 
and from their earliest appearance in history have 
been retiring before the pressure of sturdier nation- 
alities. At present they do not number over three 
hundred thousand, and in a few generations will be 
merged in the neighboring Spaniards and French. 

The Basque language belongs to one of those 

* Compare Taylor, Origm of the Aryans^ p. 98, and Paul Broca, 
Surf Origine et la Repartition de la Langue Basque^ Paris (1875). 
Broca recognized the autochthony of the Basque in Spain, and con- 
sidered their language the oldest in Europe. 

t Called by the French craniologists tete de lievre. De Quatrefages 
identified certain skulls from kitchen-middens in Portugal as of this 
form, indicating that the Euskaric peoples once extended that far 
west. Hist. Gen. des Races Htiinaines^ p. 478. 



144 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

primitive forms of human speech such as we find 
among the Negroes of Central Africa, or the savage 
tribes of Siberia. It is of that type called agglutina- 
tive and polysynthetic, and in some points has the in- 
corporative tendency of American tongues. It is the 
speech of a people whose ideas remained confined to 
objective material relations. According to the latest 
students, it is absolutely without connection with any 
of the so-called Turanian (Ural-Altaic) languages, 
and IS equally remote from the Hamitic group.^ 
I now turn to 

2. The Aryac Stock 

of peoples and languages. It is sometimes called the 
'' Indo-European," or '' Indo-Germanic,'' or '' Celt- 
Indic '' f stock, and embraces the principal historic 
nations of Europe, and in Asia the Armenians, Per- 
sians and Hindostanees. 

Origin of the Aryans. — No ethnographic question 
of late years has led to keener discussion than the 
origin and affinities of these peoples. The theory 
derived from the Hebrew myth of the Deluge, that 
they migrated into Europe from Asia, was long ac- 

* See on this point the detailed comparisons in Heinrich W^inkler's 
Ural-altaische V'olker und Sprachen^ ss, 155-167, and elsewhere. 
The attempted identifications of Basques and Berbers by Dr. Tubino 
[Los Aborigines Ibericos^ Madrid, 1876) is therefore a failure. 

t I should prefer the term '* Celtindic " to either of the others. 
" Aryan," or Aryac, suggested by Prof. Max Miiller from a Sanscrit 
root, signifies " noble,*' "superior." It is open to several objections, 
but I have adopted it on account of its popularity. 



BIRTHPLACE OF ARYANS. I45 

cepted without question, and seemed to be strength- 
ened by the discovery that Sanscrit, the classical lan- 
guage of India, and Zend, the ancient tongue of Per- 
sia, are related to Greek, Latin and German. 

But reflection and extended observation led to other 
results. It was perceived that the majority of the 
Aryac peoples had lived in Europe from the remotest 
historic times, and only a small minority in Asia; 
that some of the Aryac tongues of Europe retain more 
ancient forms than either Sanscrit or Zend ; that the 
oldest traditions point to migrations from Europe into 
Asia, and not the reverse ; that these traditions are 
supported by the Indian Aryans, who distinctly claim 
that their ancestors migrated from the north into 
India, and by the Persians, whose sacred book, the 
Avesta, declares they were not the original owners of 
Iran, and finally by an examination of the arts of the 
pre-historic Europeans,"^' and an exhaustive analysis of 
the words common to all the dialects of Aryac speech, 
which indicate that the ancestral tribe must have lived 
in geographic surroundings not to be found in the 
Aryac districts of Asia, but answering in all points to 
the regions of central or western Europe. 

I constantly see it stated in works on ethnology 
and linguistics that the scientist who first advanced 

* The European bronze age, for instance, was not introduced by 
the Indo-Aryac peoples, as their early art-forms in bronze are quite 
distinct, and their alloy different, the Asian bronze being a zinc, the 
European a tin alloy. See on this R. Virchow in the Correspoiidenz- 
Blatt der deiitchen Gesell. Jilr AiitJiropolgie, 1889, s. 94. 
10 



146 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

this opinion was the EngHshman, Dr. Robert G. 
Latham. Nothing is more erroneous. For a score 
of years before he introduced it to the EngHsh public, 
this view had been repeatedly and ably defended by 
the eminent Belgian naturalist, d'Omalius d'Halloy. 
He lost no opportunity of showing that the ancestors 
of the modern Europeans did not come from Asia, 
but belonged originally to the continent they now in- 
habit.'^ 

Since his first promulgation of this theory in 1839, 
the evidence in its favor has been slowly but steadily 
accumulating, until now it numbers among its adher- 
ents practically all the ethnologists of the day who do 
not feel committed by their previous writings, or by 
their creeds, to the Asian hypothesis. Among the 
English writers who have recently treated the subject 
with marked ability and much more fullness than is 
possible for me at present, I mention Canon Isaac 

* See d' Halloy's articles in the Bulletins de V Academic Royale de 
Belgique^ beginning with Vol. VI (1839) ; especially in 1848 his " Ob- 
servations sur la Distribution ancienne des peuples de la race 
blanche." Dr. Latham first stated this view in an Appendix, dated 
1859, to an article on "The original extent of the Slavonic area." 
See his Opuscula, pp. 127-28 (London, i860). I observe that Dr. 
John Beddoe, in his last address before the Anthropological Institute 
of Great Britain this year, 1890, repeats the statement: "The first 
anthropologist of note who took up the notion of the European 
origin of the Aryans was Dr. Robert Latham " {[our. Ant/ij^op. Inst., 
1890, p. 491). On the contrary, d'Halloy, in the "Observations" 
above quoted (p. 9), urges that the " Indo-Germanic " languages 
point to a kinship of those who speak them, and that they always 
have been in Europe, and did not come from Asia. 



THE ARYAC TYPE. 147 

Taylor and Professor A. W. Sayce: in Germany. O. 
Schrader. Karl Penka, Theodor Posche, L. Geiger, 
and in France, M. de Lapouge, etc. 

I shall not enter into a recital of these arguments, 
for I believe the debate is so nearly terminated that 
the conclusion may be accepted that the Ar\-ac peo- 
ples originated in Western Europe and migrated east- 
erly. This you will observe is in accord with the gen- 
eral theor}' of the origin and distribution of the white 
race which I laid before you, and is a potent argu- 
ment in its support. 

The Aryjc Physical Type. — When we endeavor to 
fix more precisely the home of that tribe which was 
the lineal Aryac progenitor, several considerations 
must be carefully weighed. The physical t}'pes of 
the Anac people differ markedly, as I stated in my 
last lecture, and some writers (Penka, Lapouge, etc.) 
have claimed that the Teutonic, the tall blonde t}'pe, is 
peculiar to the Arvans, and must have been the orig- 
inal character. But it is found with just as great pur- 
ity among the Libyans of Africa, so that the asstmip- 
tion is vain. 

It is an tmdeniable fact that at the earliest period, 
both in Europe and Asia, the majority of Ar}-an- 
speaking peoples were brunettes, and it is also a fact 
that in the population of Europe to-day there is a 
tendency to revert to that type. When a blonde and 
a bnmette intermarry-, ten per cent, more children will 
take after the brunette.* There is a probability, there- 

* A. De Candolle, /^i^u^ d* AnikropologU, 1S87, p. 265, sq. This 



148 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

fore, that the original Aryac tribe was a mixture of 
blondes and brunettes, with a majority of the latter, 
and also that the form of its skulls was variable, some 
long, some broad. "^ 

This would indicate a mixed descent, and such, no 
doubt, it owned. It is absurd to suppose the contrary. 
The type of the proto-Aryac language is one which 
originates not early, but late in the history of human 
speech. The process of grammatical inflection is the 
highest stage of linguistic evolution. It is the result 
of a slow growth, in which the material elements of 
language are transformed into formal elements, and the 
" grammatical categories,'' or parts of speech, gradu- 
ally assume logical distinctness and independent ex- 
pression. We can watch this growth in its imperfect 
form in the Nahuatl of Mexico and the Berber of Mo- 
rocco ; and when we see it completed, as in the Arabic 
or Latin, we may be sure it is a comparatively late fruit 
of the human intellect. The expressions common to 
all Aryac languages reveal a primitive social condi- 
tion to correspond with this. It was above that of 
savagery. These common ancestors had domesticated 
dogs, cattle, and perhaps sheep ; nomadic at times, 
they at some seasons tilled the soil ; they were ac- 



is ingeniously explained on the mechanical theory of mixing colors 
by d' Halloy. Ol^s. suf" la Dist7^ib. dela Race Blanche, p. 11. (Brux- 
elles, 1848.) Compare also R. Virchow, Die Verbi^eitung des blond'en 
und des brimetten Typus in Mitteleuropa, who attributes the increas-e 
of brunette's to a reversion to " Celtic or pre-Celtic ancestry." 

* This opinion has also been defended by Fligier, Zur praehistor- 
ischen Ethnologic Italiens, p. 55. 



OLDEST ARYAC DIALECTS. I49 

quainted with copper, and brewed mead from honey ; 
they had probably even invented a wagon, and milked 
their cows, and they certainly lived on or near the sea- 
shore, and used boats. 

The conclusion is that the original inflected Aryac 
tongue arose from the coalescing of two or more un- 
inflected agglutinative or semi-incorporative tongues, 
the mingling of the speeches being accompanied, as 
always, by a mingling of blood and of physical traits. 
This explains the fact that has puzzled so many eth- 
nologists, that there is no fixed Aryac type. 

Where should we look for this intermingling to have 
taken place? From the arguments already advanced 
you would naturally say, somewhere on the western 
coast of Europe. 

This is supported by an unexpected piece of evi- 
dence of a strong character. The system of conso- 
nants is undoubtedly the most persistent part of a lan- 
guage, and there is no question but that the Celtic and 
Lithuanian, of all the Aryac tongues, have kept most 
closely to the primitive system of consonants once com- 
mon to them all."^ The Lithuanian is spoken by a 
limited community on the coast of the Baltic sea, while 
the Celtic, in proto-historic times, occupied the whole 
of Great Britain and northern Belgium, France and 
Spain. In the two latter areas it was from imme- 
morial time in close connection with the Euskaric 
(Basque), and perhaps the Libyan (Berber) groups, 
and it is possible that in comparatively late (neolithic) 

* Taylor, Origijt of the Aryans ^ p. 259. 



150 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

times the Aryac with its inflections might have been 
developed from these partly agglutinative languages. 

This suggestion is not so hazardous as it may seem. 
William von Humboldt, one of the ablest linguists of 
this century, suggested that the Basques and the 
Celts, the Ligurians and the Gauls, in spite of the 
contrasted structure of the*ir languages, may have 
sprung from the same ethnic trunk, and derived their 
languages from a common source.''' 

Other scholars of eminence, such as Delitzsch, As- 
coli, Raumer, Schultze and Abel, have pointed out 
numerous affinities between the Hamito-Semitic, Liby- 
an, old Coptic and Assyrian tongues, and the oldest 
Aryac forms, and have argued for the existence of a 
fundamental '' proto-Ayro-Semitic '' speech which ex- 
isted before the separation of the white race into its 
northern and southern branches. f There is evidence 
that this very ancient tongue was of the '' isolating '' 
character, with a tendency to agglutination by suffixes. 

It is now recognized that inflection did not exist in 
the primitive Aryac dialects, but w^as gradually devel- 
oped by means of such suffixes added to the stem, by 
different processes in the different dialects, many of 



1 ■* See his remarkable essay, published in 1821, entitled Priifung 
der Unterstich7tnge7t ilhei' die UrhewoJuter Hispaiiiens vermitllest der 
Vaskischen Sprache^ § 47- 

t In his latest work, Dr. Abel avers that the old Egyptian and 
Indo-European stocks have as many radicals in common as the 
idioms of the latter have among themselves. Ai,gyptisch-Europaeische 
Spi^achverivandtschaft^ s. 58 (Leipzig, 1890). 



EARLY ARYAC ROVINGS. I5I 

which are in activity to-day.'^ These inflective pro- 
ceses bear closer resemblance to the Libyan, which 
has suffixes, and the old Egyptian, than to pure Semi- 
tic tongues, which leads to the suggestion, again, that 
the separation of the race was in the west rather than 
the east. 

Profo-Aryac Migrations. — Leaving these specula- 
tions as to the origin of the Aryac stock, let us sketch 
its probable migrations, as indicated by linguistic re- 
search. It appears to have divided early into two 
main streams, the one occupying central and southern 
Europe, the other moving eastward on a northerly 
route, the two meeting as they neared the Bosphorus. 

The central stream was of Celtic affinities. Its 
tribes having possessed themselves of the coast line 
from Cape Finisterre to the mouth of the Rhine and 
the islands of Great Britain, passed up the valleys of 
the Rhine and its affluents into southern Germany, 
the valleys of Switzerland and the Tyrol, quite to the 
Danube. Its easternmost tribes were probably the 
Dacians. 

The Aryac Italic peoples, the Umbrians, the Oscans, 
the Latins, were the first offshoot of this southern mi- 
gration ; not that they were directly descended from 
the Celts, but that they sprang from the same division 
of the primitive Aryac stock. This is still so clear 
that I remember ]\Iatthew Arnold in his lectures on 

* See Karl Brugman, Comparafzve Grammar of the Indo-Germanic 
Language s,\o\. L, pp. 13, 14; W^harton, Etyma Latina^ Introduc- 
tion. 



152 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

poetry quotes sentences from ancient Irish which are 
also intelHgible Latin. 

A second offshoot was the Illyrians, who peopled 
the northern and eastern shores of the Adriatic, the 
ancestors of the modern Albanians. 

A third was the Hellenic people, organized later 
than the Latins, and imbued with elements quite for- 
eign to these. 

The northern stream was the Letto-Slavic, whose 
primitive home was on the shores of the German 
Ocean north of the mouth of the Rhine, and in the 
region which extends thence to the Gulf of Finland. 
Its members presented the physical traits of the Libyo- 
Teutonic type, contrasting in this to the traits of the 
central and southern stream, who were of the dark 
type of the race. The Cymric type seems to have 
been a mingling of the two, and was found at or near 
the boundaries between them. 

At a comparatively late period — certainly after the 
beginning of the bronze age, as we know from their 
languages — the Teutonic tribes separated from the 
Letto-Slavs, and moved into Central and South Ger- 
many, where they remained. Numerous Salvonic 
hordes, however, pushed eastward, some passing to 
the north of the Black and Caspian Seas, where they 
formed the ancient Sarmatians, others approaching 
the Hellespont, where they mingled with Celtic and 
other elements to make the Thracian and other peo- 
ples. 

Passing into Asia across the Hellespont and Bos- 



ARYAC WANDERINGS. 



153 



phorus, or along the coast in their vessels, or pursuing 
the shores of the Caspian, numerous Aryac colonies 
from the vanguard of the eastern emigrants wandered 
into Asia. The Indo-Eranians that is, the ancient 
Persians and Sanscrit speaking tribes, entered first and 
progressed farthest, settling in Iran, and occupying the 
land between the Caspian Sea and the Indian Ocean. 

Later came the Phrygians and Armenians, who had 
formerly lived in Thrace, crossing the Bosphorus and- 
establishing themselves in Asia Minor. 

The dates of these occurrences can be fixed only ap- 
proximately. The Armenian migration was later than 
700 B. C, as previous to that date the Vans, a people 
of non-Aryac speech, occupied the region later known 
as Armenia. The Brahmans crossed the Hindu- 
Kusch into India, about 1500—2000 B. C, and the Per- 
sians possessed themselves of Iran at least a thousand 
years earlier. 



Primitive 
Aryans. 
(Western 
Europe.) 



Scheme of Aryac Migration. 

European. 
' Letto-Lithuanians. 



Asian. 



Northern 
Peoples 
(Blondes). 



Southern 
Peoples. 
(Brunettes). 



Teutons. 

Slavonians. 
Thracians. 
\ Dacians, 
Hellenes. 

Illyrians, 

Italians. 

Celts. 



] Phrygians. 
Cappadocians, 
Armenians. 
Medes. 
Iranians. 
Indians. 



\ 



(The names in italics are of extinct peoples.) 



154 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

We must not suppose that the languages of these 
peoples developed one out of the other. That is not 
the way languages grow. It was by contact in vari- 
ous centres with various dialects and wholly different 
linguistic stocks that the speech of these nomads was 
altered. They did not journey always in one direc- 
tion, but to and fro, now rapidly advancing, now re- 
treating, now long stationary, ever through war, com- 
merce and marriage adding new elements to their 
speech, each tribe developing its dialect with independ- 
ent material and on different grammatical principles. 

We are now prepared to study the historic and 
modern representatives of this important stock. 

JT. The Celtic Peoples. 

The Celtic peoples of the present day form a decay- 
ing group, which in a few generations will wholly dis- 
appear. Two thousand years ago they were the most 
important Aryac stock in central and western Europe. 
Their sole representatives now are the Highland 
Scotch, the Irish, the Manx, the Welsh, and the na- 
tives of Brittany in France. In all these localities the 
Celtic speech is losing ground before English or 
French. In Ireland about 900,000 persons can speak 
Irish, but not more than 150,000 are ignorant of Eng- 
lish. 

These Celtic groups form two dialects, one spoken 
in Scotland, Ireland and the Isle of Man, known as 
Gaelic, the other common to Wales, Brittany, and in 
the last century to Cornwall, called Armorican or 



CELTIC TRAITS. I55 

Cymric. The Irish possessed a sparse Hterature go- 
ing back to the eighth century, and the Welsh to the 
twelfth, while the oldest Scotch or Breton songs date 
at the furthest from the fourteenth century, in spite of 
assertions to the contrary. 

To this day the Celtic peoples present the same con- 
trast of physical type that they did to the Romans. 
Some of the Scotch clans, many of the Irish, most of 
the Welsh and Bretons, are of moderate stature, dark 
eyes and hair, and brunette complexion, while the re- 
mainder are tall, raw-boned, red-haired, with florid^ 
freckled skins and tawny beards. 

Their mental traits are quite as conspicuous ; tur- 
bulent, boastful, alert, courageous, but deficient in 
caution, persistence and self-control, they never have 
succeeded in forming an independent state, and are a 
dangerous element in the body politic of a free coun- 
try. In religion they are fanatic and bigoted, ready 
to swear in the words of their master, rather than to 
exercise independent judgment. France is three-fifths 
of Celtic descent, and this explains ni ^h in its history 
and the character of its inhabitants. 

2, The Italic Peoples. 

The principal Aryac tribes who possessed them- 
selves of the Italian peninsula were the Umbrians in 
the north, and the Samnites (or Oscans) and Latins in 
the south. They conquered in time the Etruscans^ 
Ligurians, Volscians and others of non-Aryac lineage, 
and laid the foundation for the mighty Aryac Empire 



156 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

of Rome, destined to command the world, and to in- 
troduce the Latin tongue as the dominant speech of 
Southern Europe. 

From the Latin speaking Roman colonies have 
sprung the Romance languages of modern times and 
the existing '' Latin peoples.'' These include the 
modern Italian, the French, the Spanish, the Portu- 
guese, the Roumanian, the Wallachian, and the Lad- 
inish in Switzerland, besides a number of dialects. 
Through the conquests of the European Romance na- 
tions, their tongues have gained the ascendency over 
the whole continent of America south of the United 
States, over a large part of Canada and North Africa, 
and over many islands. To-day, the speech of impe- 
rial Rome, more or less modified, prevails over an area 
five times as great as that of the empire in the zenith 
of its glory. 

Like the language, the physical type of the ancient 
Italic peoples indicated their near relationship to the 
dark Celts. The Latin and Umbrian skulls were short 
or rounded (brachycephalic), the stature medium, the 
hair dark and curly, the eyes brow^n or black, the nose 
aquiline, the complexion brunette. In later genera- 
tions this type was modified by mixture with the 
blonde or long-skulled Etruscans, and the numerous 
foreigners who came to live in Rome ; but to this day 
it is that which prevails throughout the peninsula. 

None of the Romance nations can boast of much 
purity of descent. After the fall of the Western Em- 
pire (476 A. D.), hordes of Germans poured into 



TRAITS OF THE LATIN NATIONS. 1 5/ 

Italy ; they also overran France and Spain, while 
Arabs and Berbers occupied for generations nearly 
the whole of the Iberian peninsula, the island of Sicily^ 
and portions of France. The Roumanians are partly 
Slavonic, and the Portuguese have Celtic and Basque 
blood. 

In spite of these admixtures, the Romance peoples 
have retained many of the mental features of the old 
Romans. In government they display the same ac- 
knowledgment of authority, love of system and bu- 
reaucratic forms of administration, which made the 
Roman municipium the wonder of the world ; in reli- 
gion, they cultivate the same respect for external 
show and material rites rather than for the ideal as- 
pects of faith ; and in literature, it is only in later 
days that they have declared independence from the 
models of classicism, which too long fettered their 
best minds. 

The ancient Romans had little ideahsm. They 
achieved nothing in poetry, philosophy or the plastic 
arts. It was owing to the Hellenic and Semitic influ- 
ence that, under the Empire, Rome became the centre 
of artistic, as of all other training. These acquired 
qualities have been transmitted to the Romance na- 
tions, and it is to them we owe nearly all that is best 
in art down to the beginning of the present century. 
The sentiment of symmetry !s native to them, and 
one has but to compare either the scientific works or 
the public buildings of France with those of Germany 
during the last five-and-t'wenty years to be convinced 



158 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

how the sense of form is present in the former and de- 
fective in the latter. 

J. The Illyric Peoples, 

The ancient Illyrians were the ancestors of the 
modern Albanians, a people numbering in all nearly 
two million souls, occupying a portion of western 
Turkey, bordering on the Adriatic Sea, about 40^ 
north latitude. They are scarcely more than semi- 
civilized, and neither in ancient nor modern times 
have they taken any prominent part in the history of 
Europe. Their language undoubtedly belongs to the 
Aryac stock, and has various affinities with Greek and 
Latin, but is a long-separated and almost isolated frag- 
ment of Aryac speech. The national name they give 
themselves is Skypetars, which means mountaineers. 
They are also known as Arnauts. 

The physical type of the Albanians is mixed, those 
to the south being chiefly blondes, to the north bru- 
nettes ; their skulls are generally long, their stature 
tall, their bodies muscular. Some of them are Mo- 
hammedans, others Roman Catholics, while others 
belong to the Greek church. In disposition they are 
turbulent and warlike, caring little for the amenities 
of civilization. 

The nearest related groups to the Illyrians are be- 
lieved to have been the Thracians, who were a blonde 
people, the Dacians, who were largely Celtic, and the 
Macedonians. Some recent writers have ar^-ued that 
the ancient Japyges were Illyrians, and had occupied 



THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 159 

most of the peninsula of Italy previous to the arrival 
of the Latins ; "^ but this question remains obscure. 

4. The Hellenic Peoples. 

It is acknowledged even by those who maintain the 
Asiatic origin of the Aryans that the Greeks entered 
the peninsula and the adjacent isles of the Ionian and 
Egean seas from a northwesterly direction. f It has 
been also argued '^ from the unmixed character of 
their language '' that they found the region uninhab- 
ited4 but there are reasons for believing that it was 
sparsely populated by a non-Aryac people of the Eus- 
caric physical type.|| 

The separation of the Greeks from the southern Ar- 
yac stream took place somewhere in the valley of the 
Danube, whence a portion of the original Hellenes 
moved down the Adriatic into the Morea, and other 
bands known as Carians, Leleges, Phrygians, etc.^ 
passed into Asia Minor. § Even the island of Cyprus, 

* See Dr. Fligier, Z^w praehistorischen EtJmologie Italiens (Wein, 
1877). There is a markedly brachycephalic type among the Alba- 
nians, quite dissimilar from the Greek. I incline to believe it is 
Celtic. See Dr. Raphael Zampa, " Anthropologie Illyrienne," in the 
Revue d^ Anthropologie^ 1886, p. 625, sq. 

t See Max Duncker, History of Greece^ Yol. I, p. 11. 

X Ibid., pp. 13, 142. 

II Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, p. 98. 

§ The Phrygian was about as closely related to the Greek as Gothic 
to middle High German. See Curtius, History of Greece, Vol. I, p. 
43, who acknowledges that the testimony of antiquity is in favor of 
the easterly migration of 'the Hellenic peoples, but denies the fact 
because it is in conflict with his Asiatic hypothesis. 



l60 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

close to the Syrian shore, appears to have supported a 
Greek population previous to its occupancy by the 
Egyptians and Semitic peoples."^ 

The Greek language has strong affinities to the an- 
cient Persian and Sanscrit, showing conclusively that 
the Aryac tribes whose descendants developed these 
tongues dwelt in eastern Europe between the Slavonic 
peoples on the north and the proto-Hellenes on the 
south. At a later date, that is, about 1500 B. C, num- 
erous Phenician colonists occupied the shores of 
Greece, constructing the so-called '' Cyclopean '' walls, 
and leaving a lasting impression, both on the language 
and culture of the Aryac population. f Greek civili- 
zation undoubtedly derived its early inspiration from 
Semitic and Hamitic sources, and nearly thirty per 
cent, of the Greek roots are non-Aryac, proving a 
large admixture of foreign thought and blood at some 
remote epoch. 

The ancient Greek physical type was rather Slavonic 
than Celtic. The skull was long (about 76), the fore- 
head high, the nose narrow and straight (the ^' Gre- 
cian nose "), the face oval and orthognathic, the com- 
plexion fair, the hair blonde or chestnut, and the eyes 
blue or grey.J The highest bodily symmetry of the 

* The Cypriote Greeks used a remarkable syllabic alphabet of 
great antiquity. R. H. Lang, Cypr^is, pp. 8, 12 (London, 1878). 

t On this important subject see Max Duncker, History of Greece^ 
Vol. I, Chap. IV, " The Phenicians in Hellas ; " and H. Schliemann, 
Tiryits, pp. 28, 57, etc. 

I Hovelacque et Herve, P^'ecis cV AntJn'opologie^ p. 573. 



GRECIAN TRAITS. l6l 

human species was reached among them, and its pro- 
portions were perpetuated for all time in the noble 
products of Greek plastic art. 

The modern Greeks have undergone extensive com- 
mingling with Slavonians, Turks, Bulgarians, etc., so 
that the ancient type is no longer common, and the 
population is generally darker in complexion, and the 
skull more globular than in classic ages. 

At a very remote epoch the Hellenic peoples occu- 
pied southern Italy (Magna Grecia), Sicily, portions 
of southern France and the regions on both shores of 
the Hellespont, their easternmost colonies extending 
quite into Syria. During the middle ages the estab- 
lishment of the capital of the eastern empire at Con- 
stantinople, gave to Greek a position in the east equal 
to that of Latin in the west. Crushed out, first by the 
Romans and next by Mongolian nordes, within this 
century the Hellenic peoples are rapidly regaining a 
prominent position. Their settlements in Asia Minor 
are displacing the Turks, and in all the cities of the 
Levant they form one of the most active elements of 
the population. 

In certain mental endowments, the Hellenic peoples 

won a position far ahead of all others. The sense of 

artistic form was possessed by them in a superlative 

degree ; for the highest philosophic thought they 

showed an aptitude unparalleled in the annals of the 

race ; in mathematics and mechanics, in poetry and the 

drama, in architecture and in literature, they created 

models of such perfection that the later generations 
II 



l62 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

of Other nations have been content to do little more 
than imitate them. To this day that culture which is 
properly called the highest, must be based on a long 
and loving study of Greek art and thought. 

5. The Lettic Peoples, 

The Letts and Lithuanians, dwelling on the shores 
of the Baltic Sea, partly in Prussia and partly in 
Russia, are unimportant peoples politically, and indeed 
every way but ethnographically. In this respect, how- 
ever, they deserve particular attention, because in the 
opinion of a number of modern writers they ^' have 
the best claim to represent the primitive Aryac race."* 
Th's claim is based on the structure of their language^ 
which seems to preserve characteristics of an exceed- 
ingly primitive type, such for instance as a dual num- 
ber, numerous oblique cases, an archaic phonology ; f 
and also on their physical appearance, being tall 
blondes, with blue eyes, and moderately long skulls 
(about 78°). Both in appearance and language they 
are a connecting link between the Slavonic and Teu- 
tonic peoples. The westernmost dialect of the groups 
the '' old Prussian," now extinct, was spoken west of 
the Vistula, and perhaps extended to the coast of the 
German Ocean. Their total number at present is not 
over 2,000,000. 

* This is the opinion of Penka, Schrader, Taylor, etc. 

t " The Lithuanian language has more antique features by far 
than any other now spoken dialect of the whole great (Aryac) fam- 
ily." W. D. Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies^ Vol. II, 
p. 228. 



THE BLONDE NORTHMEN. 163 

6. The Teutonic Peoples 

Separated from the Letto-SIavonians about the begin- 
ning of the Age of Bronze (see above p. 152), and ex- 
tended themselves toward central and southern Ger- 
many, north into Scandinavia, and west along the 
shores of the North Sea. Their most celebrated an- 
cient tribes were the Goths and Vandals, the Angles 
and Saxons, the Danes and Norsemen, the Franks 
and Alemanni, the Lombards and the Burgundians. 
The modern nations which with more or less justice 
are classed as of Teutonic descent, are the German 
speaking population of the German and Austrian em- 
pires, the States of Sweden and Norway, Denmark, 
Holland, western Switzerland and England. It is 
needless to say that there is little purity of descent in 
most of these lands ; the highest is believed to be in 
Scandinavia. There we find still in the ascendant the 
tall and muscular frame, the fair hair and complexion, 
the blue eyes and full blonde beards which the Greek 
and Roman writers agree in attributing to the dreaded 
northern barbarians. The skull is long, the tempera- 
ment lymphatic, and the complete growth attained 
later than in the Celtic stock.* 

The mental character of the Teuton is somewhat 
sluggish and material, but is directed by clear in- 
sight and unconquerable pertinacity. His conquests, 

* In North Germany the present percentage of blondes is 42 ; in 
the German empire, 32 ; in Austria, 20; in Switzerland, 11. (Vir- 
chow, D/e Verhreitutig des blondejt tmd des brunetten lypus in Mit- 
tdeiiropa.) 



164 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

whether on the field of battle or in the arena of the 
intellect, have been attained by deliberate calculation 
and dogged obstinacy. His clear judgment refuses to 
be controlled by the mere dicta of authority. In the 
fourth century the Goths attached themselves to the 
great Arian heresy, and a thousand years later their 
descendants were the first to throw off the yoke of the 
Roman church. The profoundest metaphysician of 
modern times, Emmanuel Kant, was a Teuton; but 
his avowed purpose was to prove the futility of all 
metaphysical speculation. The poets and dramatists 
of the Teutonic nations, Shakespeare, Schiller, 
Goethe, were the first to break definitely with the clas- 
sical models, and vindicate the freedom of the artist. 

Within the last century, the extension of this group 
over the globe has left all others far behind. The 
German, the Englishman and the Anglo-American 
now control the politics of the world, and their con- 
tributions to every department of literature, science 
and the arts have been the main stimuli of the marvel- 
lous progress of the nineteenth centruy. 

7. The Slavonic Peoples. 

In the early historic period there stretched a line of 
kindred agricultural and nomadic tribes from the 
Baltic to the Black and Caspian seas, forming the 
northern outposts of the Aryac - stock, in immediate 
contiguity with the Mongolian race. They were the 
Scythians, Sarmatians, Massagetes, etc. Their lan- 
guages belonged to what is called the Slavonic group, 



SLAVONIC PEOPLES. 165 

and had a marked family likeness ; but the physical 
traits of the various tribes were then, as now, very 
various, and the most that can be said is that the ma- 
jority were blondes, with flaxen hair, full beards and 
a tendency to dolichocephaly."^ 

These tribes were the ancestors of the numerous 
Slavonic peoples of the present day, the Russians, 
Ruthenians, Poles, the Wends in Prussia, the Czechs 
of Bohemia, the Bulgarians and Servians, the Monte- 
negrins, Dalmatians and Croatians. All these, and 
some smaller communities, speak to-day Slavic dia- 
lects, though they are by no means all of pure Slavic 
descent. There has been a constant intermingling 
with the Mongolians, easily recognizable in physical 
traits and mental character. Though early brought 
into contact with civilization, the Slavonic peoples 
Jiave been the last of all the xA^ryans to appreciate its 
greatest benefits. Within a century, however, their 
progress has been phenomenal, and, except the Eng- 
lish people, no other nation within that period has 
extended so widely the domain of enlightened govern- 
mental control over half-savage tribes. The con- 
quests of the Russians in northern and central Asia 
have always been attended with beneficent results for 

■^ On the extreme diversity of skull-forms among the modern Rus- 
sians see Revue d^ Anthropologies 1889, p, 99. The race of the " Kur- 
gans," or ancient tombs, which are supposed to date back to the ninth 
or tenth century, had usually long skulls ; but about 20 per cent, are 
short. Herve is quite right in his statement, " II n'y a pas un type 
general slave, il n'y a meme pas un type slave du nord et un type 
slave du sud." Precis d^ Anthropologies p. 564. 



1 66 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

the conquered people, and nothing but the selfish jeal- 
ousy of other European governments has prevented 
these conquests from being far more extensive and far 
more fruitful of good to mankind. 

The Russian is laborious, submissive, dreamy, un- 
practical. The individual is lost in the community, 
the mir, a communistic village association of great 
antiquity. His religion is the merCvSt formality, re- 
lieved by outbreaks of fanaticism. Russian literature, 
which has lately become the vogue in other nations, is 
introspective and unhealthful, oriental in its spirit, 
occidental in its cravings. 

The ancient Slavonic tribes had close relations with 
the Eranic peoples, the Medes and Persians. The 
connecting link seems to have been the Sigyni and 
Agathyrsi tribes, who dwelt south of the Carpathians, 
in what is now Transylvania. Both of these claimed 
relationship to the Medes, and when they were con- 
quered by the Celtic Dacians, many of them followed 
their cousin in Asia. They were not without culture, 
and Herodotus speaks of them as loving luxury, and 
decorating themselves with gold. Ornaments of this 
metal, worked with creditable skill, are found in their 
graves, along v/ith polished stone, implements and 
fragments of pottery.''' 

8. The Indo-Eranic Peoples, 

The colony of the Aryans which pushed its way 

* Cf. Gesa Kuun, " L' Origine des Nationalites de la Transylvanie," 
in Revue d'' Ethnographic^ 1888, pp. 232, sqq. 



ERANIC MIGRATIONS. 167 

furthest to the east was the Indo-Eranic. Its various 
dialects prove conclusively that its ancestral tribe, 
when on European soil, occupied a position between 
the Slavonic and Hellenic peoples, probably between 
the Danube and the Egean Sea. Its latest contingent, 
the Armenian people, was a branch of the Thracian 
Briges, and occupied their territory in Asia Minor 
about 700 B. C. The main migration preceded them 
at least two thousand years, and divided into two 
branches, one establishing its chief power between the 
Caspian Sea and the Indian Ocean, the other crossing 
the Hindu-Kusch range and gradually obtaining the 
chief control of Hindostan. The former includes the 
Eranic, the latter the Indie groups of the Aryac stock. 

The ancient representatives of the Eranic peoples 
were the old Bastrians and Persians. In the language 
of the former, sometimes called Zend, their sacred 
book, the Zend-avesta, was written probably about 500 
B. C, and in the latter many cuneiform inscriptions 
are preserved, dating somewhat later. 

Their modern descendants are the Persians and 
Parsees, the tribes of Afghanistan, Beluchistan, 
Kurdistan, and Luristan, and the Ossetes, who dwell 
in the vales of the central Caucasus."^ Most of these 
are Mohammedans in religion, and in a backward 
condition of civilization. Their physical appearance 

* Omalius d'Halloy has called attention to the statement of 
Potocki, Voyages^^. 167, that the Ossetes, by their own traditions, 
came from southeastern Russia, on the river Don. They are gen- 
erally blondes of the brachycephalic Slavonic type. 



l68 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

speaks of frequent intermixtures with Mongolic and 
Semitic elements. 

The ordinary rural population of Persia are called 
the Tadchiks. They are diligent agriculturists, and 
devoted likewise to commercial pursuits. In the lat- 
ter capacity they are often met from Constantinople to 
China. Their language is usually the modern Per- 
sian, an Aryac dialect which has departed from the 
original inflectional standard almost as much as the 
modern English. Those who live in Kaschgar, how- 
ever, speak Turkish, while retaining the physical traits 
of their Aryac ancestry. 

Modern Persian has developed an interesting litera- 
ture, consisting chiefly of poetry and works of imag- 
ination. 

The Afghans and Beluchis are the nearest related 
to the Indian stock. Their dialects are derived from 
the Sanscrit, and in appearance they resemble the 
Indo-Aryans rather than the Persian. The assertion 
of some ethnographers that they are of Semitic affini- 
ties has been disproved. They are, however, mixed 
with Semitic and Dravidian blood. Although histori- 
cally established about their present locality since the 
days of Alexander the Great, they retain faint tradi- 
tions that their ancestors came from the west, which 
has led some to suppose them of Syrian extraction.* 
In religion they are generally fanatical Mohammedans, 
and their nationality is a loose federation of independ- 
ent clans. 

* Cf. Louis Rousselet, Les Afghans^ in Revue d'' Anthropologies 
1888, p, 412. 



EAST INDIAN PEOPLES. 169 

The Indie branch of this eolony entered Hindostan 
as late as 2000—1500 B. C. Its language was then as 
closely akin to the Bactrian as, say, Italian and French 
are to-day. Its member, were roving herdsmen, and 
first occupied the valleys of the Punjaub, driving be- 
fore them the Dravidas, a non-Aryac folk, who had 
occupied the land. The priestly class of these colo- 
nists were called Brahmans, their dialect Sanscrit, and 
in this we have preserved from that remote epoch 
many religious chants called the Rig Veda, committed 
to writing probably about 500 B. C. The original 
tongue soon split up into many dialects, as the Pali, 
the Prakrit and the modern Hindoostantee. 

The population of the Indian peninsula to-day, who 
speak these dialects and are more or less of Aryac 
blood, numbers nearly a hundred million. They in- 
clude the Rajpoots, the Djats, the Hindoos, the 
Hunzas, and numerous other tribes and castes. The 
ubiquitous gipsies or Romany are a wandering branch 
of these who left India as late as the twelfth or thir- 
teenth century, and have been roving over Europe 
ever since. 

The earliest Indo-Aryans had undoubtedly retained 
many pure Aryac traits. They were of medium 
height, oval faces, handsome regular features, sym- 
metrical in body, the skull dolichocephalic (about yj^, 
the complexion brunette but not brown, the eyes hazel, 
the hair wavy. This is the type of the highest Brah- 
mans to-day, and throughout all their history they 
have exercised the utmost care to preserve it intact. 



170 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

The institution of castes was undoubtedly established 
with this object in view, the word for '' caste/' varna^ 
in Sanscrit meaning '' color." 

The mental aptitudes of the Indie immigrants are 
seen to advantage in their rapid conquest of Hindo- 
stan, in the civilization they developed, and in the vast 
literature which they created."^ While in art and phi- 
losophy inferior to the Greeks, they succeeded in one 
point far beyond any other Aryac people, that is, in 
the formation of two of the most successful religions 
of the world, Brahmanism and Buddhism. The for- 
mer, a pure pantheism, has been established nearly 
4000 years, and still can claim votaries ; the latter, 
theoretically an atheism, to-day has more believers than 
any other cult. 

III. The Caucasic Stock. 

The defiles and fastnesses of the Caucasus have been 
time out of mind harbors of refuge for the defeated 
tribes of the neighboring regions. Isolated in their 
secluded homes, in ceaseless warfare with their neigh- 
bors, an astonishing diversity of type and language 
arose. When the Romans undertook to explore these 
mountains, they had to call in the aid of seventy inter- 
preters ! It is not surprising, therefore, that we find 
communities there to-day, tribes apparently of Aryac 

* Sanscrit civilization extended throughout most of Farther India 
and Malasia, and at one time had one of its chief seats in Cambodia, 
where the ruins of magnificent palaces decorated with subjects from 
the Ramayana attest its presence. See Abel Bergaigne, " Sur I'His- 
toire Ancienne du Cambodge," in Revue d^ Ethnographies 1885, p. 
477, sg. 



CAUCASIAN BEAUTIES. I7I 

lineage, speaking agglutinative languages, and others, 
of Mongolia appearance, quite unconnected with any 
Mongolic tongue. Divided as far as possible by lin- 
guistic resemblances, the Caucasian peoples may be 
placed under four groups : 

1. The Lesghic, which includes the Avars, and peo- 
ple of Daghestan. 

2. The Circassic, in which fall the Circasians 
proper, and others. 

3. The Kistic, and 

4. The Georgic, the principal members of which are 
the Georgians and Mingrelians. 

The physical types vary greatly, but it is well 
known that the brunette beauties of Georgia have long 
been accounted among the handsomest women of the 
race, and miany of the men are remarkably noble in 
feature. Intellectually, however, they have never 
taken a high rank. 

Of them all, the Georgian tribes have the oldest 
culture, the traditions reaching as far back as 1200 
B. C, and some trustworthy data as far as 700 B. C. 
They were among the early converts to Christianity, 
and about the beginning of this century voluntarily 
accepted the sovereignty of Russia.'^ 

The Georgian girls have long been celebrated for 
their beauty, and merit their renown ; but they age 
very rapidly. The Circassian women are also cele- 
brated, but are less perfect beauties. Both have black 

* A. F. Rittich, Die Ethnographie Rtisslands^ p. 2. (4to, Gotha, 

1878.) 



172 THE EURAFRICAN RACE. 

eyes and dark hair, the complexion a brunette some- 
times to brownness. The Circassian girls were those 
who principally supplied the harems of Constanti- 
nople. They went willingly, and their families saw 
nothing shameful in such a transaction. 

Their traits and geographical location have gained 
for the Caucasians the credit of being the oldest as 
well as the purest type of the white race, which in- 
deed has been often called the '' Caucasian '' race. 
Recent archseological researches, however, have shown 
that the Caucasus was not inhabited until the close 
of the neolithic period.''' An examination of the 
geological condition of these mountains proves that 
they were covered with glaciers until a late period, 
especially on the southern slope, and no vestige of 
human occupation previous to the neolithic period has 
been found in this alleged cradle of the human race, 
and pretended place of origin of some of our domestic 
animals. f 

* " Everything goes to prove," writes de Quatrefages, " that the 
Caucasus was not a center of emigration^ but of imi7iigration by 
various peoples at a comparatively late date. {Histoire Generale des 
Races Humaiites^ p. 475.) The researches of Rudolph Virchow result 
in showing that these mountains were peopled at about the begin- 
ning of the age of bronze. 

t This is the result of the observations of Ernest Chantre, who 
spent years in personal investigations throughout the Caucasus. 
{Recherches Anthropologiques dans le Caucase, quoted in Revite d^ 
Anthropologies 1888, p. 480.) Virchow reached the same conclusion 
from his osteologic studies [Zeitschrift fur Etknologie, 1887, p. 97.) 
It is high time therefore to stop talking about the " Caucasian " 
race. 



LECTURE VI. 



THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

Contents. — Former geography of Africa. Area of characterization 
of the race. Its early extension. Divisions. 

I. The Negrillos. Classical tales of Pygmies. Physical charac- 
ters. Habits. Relationship to Bushmen. Description of Bush- 
m-en and Hottentots. 

II. The Negroes. Home of the true negroes, i. The Nilotic 
Gro.up. 2. The Sudanese Group. 3. The Senegambian Group. 
4. The Guinean group. 

III. The Negroids. Physical traits. Early admixtures, i. The 
Nubian Group. 2. The Bantu group. 

General Observations on the Race. Low intellectual position. 
Origin of negroes in the United States ; in Arabia. 

We have seen that the African continent at the 
period of 'its first occupancy was divided by the sea 
(now desert) of the Sahara into two unequal por- 
tions, the northern being properly an appendix of 
Europe. The southern portion began at the Medi- 
terranean on the north, where the tertiary plateau of 
Tripoli rises above the sea, included the valley of the 
Nile above the Delta, and the remainder of the conti- 
nent as it now is, together with the island of Madagas- 
car, with which it was then connected by a land bridge. 
As the Sahara sea evaporated to become a desert, its 

(173) 



174 



THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 





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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. I75 

vast tracts and also the lower Nile valley and the 
eastern coast nearly to the Equator were occupied by 
the Hamitic stock of the white race. The remainder 
of the continent was in the possession of the Aust- 
african or black race. 

This race is divisible into three quite different types 
or branches, resembling each other in possessing a 
very dark skin, black eyes, woolly hair, a prognathic 
face, and generally a dolichocephalic skull, but differ- 
ing widely in many minor traits. These types are the 
Negrillos, the Negroes, and the Negroids, 

The general characteristics of the Austafrican 
race are the most positively marked of any of the 
varieties of oui species, and as it is certainly the 
lowest in zoological analogies, by some writers it has 
been considered the oldest of all. This reasoning is 
erroneous. The black race developed quite locally, 
under the influence of intense heat and humidity. Its 
original habitat must have been where alone its purest 
representatives have always been permanently resid- 
ing, that is, on the lowlands of western central Africa, 
between the equator and 12° north latitude, and from 
lake Tchad to the Atlantic. The hot and moist de- 
pression watered by the great river Niger, may be 
named as the probable '' area of characterization '' of 
the distinctive physical type of this race. 

How far from this center was its maximum exten- 
sion has been variously estimated. There is no 
evidence that the blacks ever occupied the lower Nile 
valley, the area of ancient Egypt. On the oldest 



1176 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

monuments they are represented as slaves, and the 
Egyptian type discloses no sign of admixture with 
Negro blood. They occupied at one time the south- 
ern oases of the Sahara, but their dominion, never 
extended as far north as Fezzan. The presence of 
Negro colonies and mixed breeds which is visible in 
the northern oases, is owing to the importation of the 
Soudanese as slaves, and also to the extensive migra- 
tions they are still in the habit of making. I learned 
when visiting some of these oases, that many black 
families are constantly moving from one to another in 
pursuit of their various callings. 

It is an historical fact that from the beginning of 
the Christian era at least, and probably much longer, 
the whole of the southern Sahara and the northern 
portion of the Niger valley have been under the ab- 
solute control of the Berbers, members of the Eur- 
african race. They founded in those lands the ex- 
tensive monarchies of Ghanata and Melle, which main- 
tained their supremacy through many centuries. 

On the east it is not likely that the Negroes ever 
gained prolonged control east of the White Nile. 
That portion of the continent between this river and 
the Arabian gulf has been held by the same peoples 
since the time the ancient Egyptians sent their trading 
ships to '' the land Punt,'' the name under which they 
knew it; and these peoples were not of the Aust- 
african type or race. 

The general tendency of migration in central as in 
southern Africa, so far as it can be traced in historic 




Ethnic Chart of Africa. 



Opp. p. 176 



THE PYGMIES. 177 

times, has been westerly and southwesterly. The 
densest population has been near the Atlantic coast, 
as if the various tribes had been crowded to the im- 
passable barrier of the ocean. 

Whether the basin of the Congo was ever held by 
the true Negro race, is an undecided question. If so, 
they were completely driven thence in proto-historic 
times. South of that region they certainly never 
penetrated, as the Hottentot and Bushman type cannot 
be considered as a derivative from the true Negro, 
but only as a descendant from a common ancestor, 
unlike either, and is perhaps a much older member of 
the family. Hence I shall begin the description of 
the race with 

I. The Negrillos. 

This diminutive form of the Spanish word negro, 
black, is applied to an unusually small variety of the 
race, which by several careful writers is believed to be 
the oldest of all the African varieties, and at one time 
to have occupied the most of the continent. Hero- 
dotus and other classical authors speak of the Pygmies 
of Ethiopia, and there is sufficient evidence to show 
that in his day they dwelt in localities as far north as 
the 1 8th degree of latitude. '*' 

For a long time modern skepticism assigned these 
statements to the realms of fable, but the rapid ex- 
ploration of Central Africa in this century proves their 

* For a full discussion of this subject consult de Quatrefages, Les 
Pygmies des anciens et de la science moderne^ Paris, 1886. 
12 



178 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

general correctness. Many travellers, especially Du 
Chaillu, Schweinfiirth, Stanley, and Emin Bey, have 
seen and described these dwarfs, and a few of them 
have been brought to Europe. 

At present they are not found more than two de- 
grees north of the equator, whence they extend south- 
ward into the ter^'tory of the Congo. Their various 
tribes are known by different names, as Akkas, Tikki- 
tikkis, Batuas, Dokos, Obongos, Vouatouas, etc. 

The height of the male is four feet six to eight 
inches, the body is symmetrical and remarkably agile, 
the facial angle is exceedingly low (about 6o°--65°), 
the face markedly prognathic, the chin retreating, the 
lips protruding, and the ears large and ugly. The 
color is not black, but a dark reddish brown, and the 
skull has a tendency to a globular form. The nose is 
flat (about 55°), and there is a strong odor to the skin. 
The hair is woolly, and in tufts, and the body is 
covered with coarse short hairs, *' so that the surface 
feels like a piece of felt." * 

These extraordinary people have no settled abodes, 
build no towns, cultivate nothing. They depend en- 
tirely on hunting and fishiitg, and the barter of the 
products of the chase to agricultural tribes. They are 
skilful in the use of the bow, •employing small pois- 
oned arrows, and also manufacture spears. Voracious 
cannibals and unerring marksmen, they are looked on 
with dread by the negroes around them. 

* See the very detailed observations of Emin Bey in the Zeitschrift 
fur Ethnologies 1886, s. 145. The hairy skin is also mentioned by Du 
Cha?"^^^ 



THE BUSHMEN. I79 

Of their religion we have no knowledge further 
than that they have an extreme dread of strange ob- 
jects, lest some malignant influence lurk in them. 

In the south of Africa we find another group of 
tribes, the Bushmen and Hottentots, also of small 
stature, and in many respects resembling the Akkas. 
They are equally far removed from the true negroes, 
and it is the opinion of some very competent observ- 
ers, notably the German travelers, Schweinfurth and 
Fritsch, that all these dwarf tribes belong to the same 
stock.''' The objection to this chiefly is that the Bush- 
men are often dolichocephalic, but so also are some 
of the Akkas, and at any rate this consideration is not 
alone of sufficient weight to be decisive. There is 
little doubt but that this dwarf stock extended over 
Madagascar, where they were known as Quimos or 
Kimos, and are believed still to exist in the southern 
part of the island.f 

The Bushmen are much better known than the 
Akkas. They dwell in and around the great Kalihari 
desert, usually in a half-famished condition, and on 
the lowest social scale. They are wandering hunters, 
making use of the bow and arrow, and are not canni- 
bals. 

The Hottentots are a mixture of the Bushmen and 

* Dr. K. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa^ vol. i., p. 139; and 
P>itsch, Verhandlungen der Bei'liner AntJwop. Gesellsc/iaft, 1887, 
s 195. 

t Leclerc, " Les Pygmees a Madagascar," in Revue d^ EtJuiographie^ 
1887, P- Z^-Z' 



l80 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

the Negroid-Bantu tribes in their vicinity. They are 
taller than the Bushmen, better nourished, and lead a 
pastoral life, possessing herds of cows and fixed habi- 
tations. Their language is remarkable for the number 
of its '' inspirates," or '' click '' sounds, to form which 
one must draw in the breath, similar to some we use 
in urging horses. In form it is agglutinative. In 
these respects and in others, it resembles the dialects 
of the Bushmen, and those who are competent to speak 
on the subject believe that both can be traced to a 
common source.'^ 

The Hottentot is rather a hopeless case for civiliz- 
ing efforts. He hates profoundly work, either physical 
or mental, and is passionately fond of rum and tobacco, 
or failing the latter, he will stupefy himself by smok- 
ing the wild hemp. He is too indolent to attempt 
agriculture, and is content to live on niilk, raw roots, 
and the product of the chase. 

Some of the English travellers, on the other hand, 
say the Hottentots have as much wit as their neigh- 
bors, the Dutch boors ! Certain it is that before they 
were oppressed by the whites, they possessed herds 
of cows, goats and sheep, dressed hides, dug wells, 
manufactured pottery, in some places tilled the ground 
and built fixed villages or kraals. 

The oft-repeated assertion that they are destitute of 
religion is, like all such, utterly false. On the con- 
trary, they have quite a developed mythology, perform 
rites and say prayers. Their principal deity is Tsuni- 

* Theodore Hahn, in Revue cV Anthropologies 1887, p. 272. 



THE LAND OF THE BLACKS. l8l 

goam, to whom they appeal as '' the father of all 
things " and '' our master/' At the rise of certain stars 
they hold festivals in honor of the gods of light, and 
they believe the spirits of the dead wander about and 
should be placated.^ Their cult, indeed, compares 
favorably with that of classic Greece. 

II. The Negroes. 

The true Negroes of Africa are confined to what 
the Arabs call Beled es Sudan, the Land of the Blacks, 
the Sudan, and adjacent parts. It is therefore an 
error to look on that continent as mainly inhabited by 
negroes. At least a third of it has always been prin- 
cipally peopled by the whites, and another third by 
tribes not of pure negro stock. The true negro type, 
such as r have described it in my first lecture (see 
page 48), is scarcely seen in resident tribes south of 
the Equator or north of the tropic of Cancer. Within 
that limit they may be divided for purposes of study 
into four groups, the Nilotic, the Sudanese, the Sene- 
gambian and the Guinean. 

J. The Nilotic Group. 

These begin with the Changallas, east of Sennaar, 
in the Egyptian Sudan, bet wen the loth and 15th 
degree of north latitude. To the south of them 
along the White Nile are the Dinkas, the Chilluks, 
the Nuers, Kiks, Baris, and other tribes. These are 

* See M. Ploix, " Les Hottentots et leur Religion," in Revue d* 
Anthropologies 1887, p. 271, sq. 



l82 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

wholly black and in a rudimentary stage of culture, 
depending chiefly on hunting and fishing. They go 
naked, the women at most wearing little aprons. 
Some of them are cannibals, and all are of savage 
dispositions. As a rule they are tall and powerful, 
and brave in war. 

The Nuers are spoken of as of fine physical traits, 
and building handsome and durable houses. Their 
bows and arrows, and the helmets of their warriors^ 
resemble those depicted on ancient Egyptian monu- 
ments. It is probable that they are of mixed blood, 
their hair being less woolly than that of their neigh- 
bors. The Baris, who live on the White Nile, are de- 
scribed as an intelligent people. They cultivate millet 
and tobacco, understand the reduction of iron and 
copper from the ores found in their country, and are 
skilful merchants, making long voyages to exchange 
their wares. 

2, The Sudanese Groiip, 

The Central Sudan is the site of the most important 
negro states, the monarchies of Bornu, Bagirmi and 
Wadai. The two former are in the fruitful depressions 
which surround Lake Tchad, a large fresh water sea 
in the center of one of the most delightful tropical 
basins in the world. The natives are known as Ka- 
noris, Kanembus, Marghis, Haussas, Biddumas, etc. 
They are true negroes, very black, and of strong body. 

Further to the west commences the watershed of 
the Niger, the great river of Central Africa, describing 



THE NIGER BASIN. 183 

in its course a vast semicircle more than two thou- 
sand miles in length. On its banks are numerous 
kingdoms and some cities of magnitude, as Sansandig, 
with 30,000 inhabitants, and the better known Tim- 
buctoo, with 20,000. Many of their houses are built 
of sun-dried bricks, and an active commerce is carried 
on. But it must be added that these houses and this 
commerce have been created by the Arabs, Tauregs, 
and mixed races, not by the negroes themselves. 
These are principally tillers of the soil, hunters, fishers 
and warriors. They nominally govern the states of 
Gando, Sokoto, Fellata and others, but Arab influence 
is visible everywhere, and the beneficent results of the 
introduction of the Mahommedan religion in this part 
of Africa is strongly attested even by English trav- 
ellers. 

The Haussas, the Todas, and the Tibbus, tribes 
near the border of the desert, are principally of negro 
blood, but with a visible strain of Hamitic descent in 
them. The last mentioned, indeed, should properly be 
classed with the Berber stock. 

J. The Senegamhian Group. 

The country south of the Senegal river to the coast 
of Sierra Leone is known as Senegambia, or the west- 
ern Sudan. It is claimed by the French, who own 
the shadow of a sway there. The tribes near the coast 
are the Sereres, the Wolofs, the Baniuns, and many 
others, all in a low stage of culture. To the east is 
the important nation of the Mandingoes, occupying an 



184 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

extensive territory adjoining western Guinea on the 
south, and stretching east to the heights near Tim- 
buctoo. 

The Wolofs present a pure type of the Negro race, 
perfectly homogeneous, and, according to Dr. Tau- 
tain, it is impossible to find among them a single phys- 
ical character hinting at an admixture of any other 
blood. Their faces are prognathic, and the women 
have the projecting gluteal region, so marked a trait 
in the Austafrican. Their language is agglutinative, 
and is an independent stock. Most of the Wolofs are 
Mohammedans, and in social organization they main- 
tain a rigid system of castes, based principally on oc- 
cupation. "^ 

The principal divisions of the Mande or Mandin^o 
nation are the Mallinki, the Soninki, and the Bambaras. 
They are not so pure in blood as the Wolofs, many 
among them having regular features, light complex- 
ions, and straighter hair. These traits are doubtless 
owing to their long contact with the A.rabs and the 
Berbers, the latter of whom have controlled their 
country more or less for two thousand years. They 
are active in commerce, and cultivate the soil, the 
men working with the women in the fields. 

'4. The Guinean Group. 

Most of the tribes of the coast of Guinea are in a 
condition of savagery, and have deteriorated by their 

* Dr. L. Tautain, " Sur 1' Ethnographie du Senegal, in Kevue d^ 
Etknogj-apkie^ 1S85, p. 61, sq. 



THE GUINEA COAST. 185 

contact with the whites. The petty kingdoms of 
Ashanti, Fanti, and Dahomey are heard of from time 
to time in our newspapers as the scene of some partic- 
ularly bloody rite or massacre. For generations this 
was the central point of the slave trade, and the en- 
couragement it gave to devastating wars led to the 
destruction of all progress. It is here, on what is 
called the Pepper Coast, that we established the Re- 
public of Liberia, where about 20,000 negroes from 
the United States are carrying out a moderately suc- 
cessful experiment of returning to their native conti- 
nent. 

III. The Negroids. ''^-^^- 

A large portion of the African continent is occu- 
pied by tribes of dark hue, but lacking some of the 
most prominent traits of the true negro. These are 
the '^ Negroids,'' who are probably the products of a 
long and close fusion of the Negro with the Hamitic 
and Semitic types. Their color is not black, but a 
dark, reddish, coppery brown ; the hair is crisp and 
frizzly, but not woolly ; the nose is straight and better 
formed than that of the negro ; the lips are thick, the 
skull long, and the neculiar odor of the negro is 
absent. 

i We find these traits in two groups, both of which 
unquestionably had their historic origin along the 
Nile, above the first cataract, and in the region 
drained by its tributaries — in other words, the local- 
ity where for ten thousand years or more the Hamites 
and the Negroes have been in constant contact. 



l86 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

We can only speculate on the numberless wars and 
marriages, on the extensive slave trade and commer- 
cial intercourse which throughout this period have 
blended the races into so many intermediate types 
that it becomes impossible in many cases to say with 
which a given tribe should be classified. To add to 
the confusion, a large Semitic element was added at 
two epochs, one when the Abyssinian branch of the 
Semites moved across from Arabia to occupy Abys- 
sinia, the other when, under the impulsion of the fan- 
aticism of Islam, the Arabs followed up the Nile in 
their proselyting campaigns. 

The latter event began in the seventh century of 
our era and has continued ever since. The former 
probably began in earnest in the height of the power 
of the Himyaritic states of southern Arabia, which we 
may roughly put at seven centuries before Christ. A 
century or two later than this, negro tribes from the 
Sudan overran the decaying cities of the upper Nile 
and established a temporary control along its banks ; 
and the emperor Diocletian induced many of them to 
settle as far north as Assuan.'^ These various influ- 
ences combined to produce the numerous mixed types 
which one sees along the Nile, rendering its ethnog- 
raphy peculiarly obscure. 

t Under the pressure of increasing population and 
external inroads, these mixed peoples divided into two 
groups, one, the Nubian, remaining in the original 
district, the other, the Bantu, removing to the south 
and southwest. ', 

* See Th. Waitz, Anth7'opologie der N'aturvolker, Bd. II, ss. 476-8. 



NATIONS OF THE UPPER NILE. 187 

J. The Nubian Group 

Includes the Nubas proper, who are partly a mixed 
people, while some of them are pure negroes from 
Kordofan ; the Barabras, who dwell on both sides of 
the Nile between the first and second cataracts ; the 
Fundjas and Bertas, further south; and the Monbut- 
tus and Nyam Nyams, or Sandehs, near Lake Victoria 
Nyanza, besides many tribes of less note. Most of 
them are more or less agricultural, and live in small 
villages. Their clothing is very slight, and many 
tattoo the skin. The Sandeh and Monbuttu are can- 
nibals, and even eat those who die of disease. Never- 
theless, they have a knowledge of metals, and are 
skilful iron-smiths. 

The physical appearance of most of these tribes 
differs equally from the Arab and the negro. They 
are generally of medium stature with thin limbs and 
flat feet. The hair is crisp, but not woolly, and the 
color varies from a black to a white brown. The beard 
is meagre and the skin hairless. The features are not 
of the negro cast, but assimilate rather those of the 
European. 

Most of them are agriculturists in a small way. 
They raise the '' caffre corn " and millet, and make 
some efforts to irrigate their fields where it is neces- 
sary. Their dwellings are wretched huts, and their 
arts are of the rudest. 

Not many centuries ago there was a large number 
of so-called Christians among them, but their religion 
seems to have left little impression on their character. 



l88 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

At present they are professedly Mohammedans, but 
really either fetichists or indifferent. Their morals 
are not well-spoken of, though it is also said that the 
class with whom travellers usually come into contact 
are not favorable specimens of the population — as is 
apt to be the case everywhere. 

The Puis, or Fellahs, and the Fans, who live to the 
west in the Sudan, removed to the regions they now 
occupy from the Nile valley, and belong to the Ne- 
groid type. They have made extensive conquests in 
the vast unexplored country between Timbuctoo and 
the equator. Abstaining from alcohol and tobacco, 
condemning music and dancing, and blindly adhering 
to the precepts of the Koran, they are unpopular 
among their negro neighbors, but have brought many 
of them under subjection. Their occupations are both 
pastoral and agricultural, while as commercial trav- 
ellers, and wandering smiths, they roam from one end 
of the Sudan to the other. They weave cotton cloth, 
tan and dye leather, and work it into various articles 
of use which are widely celebrated for their excellence, 
and in times past were among the most extensive 
slave dealers of Central Africa. 

The languages of this group belong to four diverse 
linguistic stocks, all of the agglutinative character. It 
has been called the equatorial family of central Africa. 
They are usually agreeable to the ear, the verbs are 
simple, and the syntax not complicated."^ 

* See Dr. Frederich Miiller, Die A^qtiatoriale Sprach-Faniilie in 
Ceittral Afrika^WiQw^ 1889. 



THE PASTORAL NEGROIDS. 189 

J. The Bantu Group 

Occupies nearly the whole of Africa south of the 
equator, except the territory of the Bushmen and 
Hottentots. It includes the Suahehs, the Mazimbas 
and the Caffres on the east coast, the Sakalavas of 
Madagascar, the Bechuanas west of the Cafifres, the 
Zuhis, and nearly aU the numerous tribes of the 
Congo basin, the Angola and Zambesi rivers."^' 

Their ancestors at one period resided to the north- 
east, probably somewhere in Ethiopia, where a pro- 
longed fusion of Hamitic blood with the genuine 
.Negro produced their physical type. They are usu- 
ally tall and well built, the color is a dark coppery 
brown, the head is long (74), the hair is frizzly, and 
the nose rather straight. 

All the Caffre people are pastoral in habits, and 
have large herds of cows. Agriculture is practised 
on a limited scale. Their temperament is turbulent 
and warlike, and many of them are cannibals. Their 
social organization is military, but slavery is unusual. 
Singular to say, they do not know the bow and arrow, 
their weapons being the war-club and a lance called an 
assegai. Their religion is a fetichism, and polygamy 
is universal. On the whole, they are on a higher 
level of culture than the Negroes of the Sudan. All 
the Bantu tribes are mono-glottic, that is, they speak 
dialects traceable to one original stem. These have a 

* The word bantu in that language means " people " or " men." 
It is preferable to " Caffres," which is sometimes applied to the 
group, and which is an Arabic term meaning ^' infidels." 



190 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

peculiar alliteration, and form their words by means 
of prefixes of elements placed .before the root, this 
being their special method of agglutination. It is di- 
vided into three principal dialects, and is the most 
widely extended of any of the African linguistic stocks, 
except the Libyan. 

The vast basin of the Congo river, including over 
two million square miles, is now mostly included in 
the '' Congo Independent State." Its native inhabi- 
tants are connected by language with the Negroids of 
the Bantu group, and several of them retain traditions 
of their immigration into the districts they now inhabit. 
The Waganda, for instance, report that their ancestors 
came from the northeast, the Watuta and Masiti from 
near the Zambesi river. Many of them are of a light, 
bright brown, and are devoid of the peculiar odor 
of the true negro. All the tribes from Lake Tan- 
ganyika to the Atlantic speak dialects manifestly 
akin. 

They are divided into independent nations, some of 
large extent, and are subject to chiefs, who rule with 
despotic power. Their religion is fetichistic, and 
though they generally are agricultural, and possess a 
certain degree of culture, cannibalism is or was fre- 
quent among them. Slavery also existed in some of 
its most deplorable forms, and up to a very recent 
date, if not still, there was a regular trade in young 
slaves to be fattened, killed and eaten on certain sol- 
emn occasions. 

General Observations on the Race. — Although the 



INTELLECT OF THE AFRICAN. I9I 

tiue Negroes occupied but a small portion of the Afri- 
can continent, the infusion of their blood into their 
Hamitic and Semitic neighbors, resulting in the Ne- 
groid type, was to such a degree that these mixed 
stocks became assimilated in character much more to 
the black than to the white race, and were brought ap- 
proximately to the mental level of the former. 

Neither the Negroes nor the Negroids ever carried 
out a conquest of lands occupied by the Hamites or 
Semites. We have vague histories of bloody wars on 
a large scale among themselves, and the erection of 
apparently powerful monarchies, but which soon fell 
to pieces.''' 

The low intellectual position of the A^ustafrican race 
is revealed by the facts that in no part of the continent 
did its members devise the erection of walls of stone ; 
that they domesticated no animal, and developed no 
important food-plant ; that their religions never rose 
above fetichism, their governments above despotism, 
their marriage relations above polygamy. It is true 
that many of them practise agriculture and the pas- 
toral life, but it is significant that the plants which they 
especially cultivate, the '' durra/' or sorghum, millet, 
rice, yams, manioc, and tobacco, were introduced from 
Asia, Europe or America.* Their cattle and sheep are 
descended from the ancient stocks domesticated bv the 
Eg}ptians, and differ from those represented on the 

* These traditions are briefly presented by de Quatrefagc.3, Hist. 
Gen. lies Races Hiimaines^ pp. 371, sqq. 

* Grandel, Eth7iog7'aphy^ p. 335. 



192 THE AUSTAFRICAN RACE. 

early monuments of Assyria and India. The brick- 
built cities of the Sudan were constructed under Arab 
influence, and the ruins of stone towers and walls in 
the gold-bearing districts of South Africa show clear 
traces of Semitic workmanship.'^' The knowledge of 
smelting and forging iron is of ancient date through- 
out Africa, and they can temper steel with skill, but 
the art of the smith is regarded as degrading, and 
their long acquaintance with this most useful of met- 
als has not lifted them from a condition of barbarism.f 

In many of the useful arts they reveal considerable 
skill. The weaving of grass into mats and cloth, the 
tanning and working of leather, the preparation of salt 
and soap, dyeing and pottery, are occupations which 
are wide spread. The true negroes are -passionately 
fond of music, singing and dancing, and the invention 
of one instrument, the marimba, which is played by 
beating wooden keys with a stick, is attributed to them. 

The tendency of the negro race in Africa is that 
which we observe among negro children in the public 
schools of the United States. Their powers develop 
quite as rapidly as those of white children up to a cer- 
tain point, up to the age of thirteen or fourteen; but 
then there comes a diminution, often a cessation, of 



* These are found in Bechuana land at Zimbabye. See John Mac- 
kenzie, Austral Africa^ Vol. I., p. 35 (London, 1887.) 

t Except the Bushman and Hottentots and Negrillos, all the Afri- 
can tribes seem to have long known the working of iron. See Dr. F. 
Delisle, " Sur la P'abrication du fer dans V Afrique Equatoriale," in 
the Revue d'' Ethnographie. 1884, p. 465. 



NEGROES IN AMERICA. I93 

their mental development. The physical overslaughs 
the psychical, and they turn away from the pursuit of 
culture. They- are unwilling to undertake, they are 
unequal to, the more arduous intellectual tasks. 

I have already remarked that the Austafricans never 
of their own volition made any serious inroad into the 
territory of the white race. Yet there are to-day prob- 
ably more than twenty millions of them, including the 
mulattoes, living among the whites, seven millions of 
whom are in the United States. This extraordinary 
condition is the result of the enormous deportation of 
the blacks as slaves, which has been going on for thou- 
sands of years. 

The origin of the negroes in the United States may 
be traced partly by the physical appearance, partly by 
the few words of their mother tongues which have 
survived the acquisition by them of the English lan- 
guage. These words are generally connected with 
the Mande stem of tongues spoken by the Mandingoes 
and their neighbors, whom I have already referred to 
as dwelling in Senegambia and the Western Sudan. ^ 
They were a nation of some importance, and having 
early become in great part adherents of the Moham- 
medan faith, established the monarchy of Melli, which 
in the thirteenth century extended from Timbuctoo 
to the coast, and forced many of the subjected tribes 
to learn the Mande tongue. 



* On the geographical domain of the Mandingoes, see a careful 
note by Dr. Toutain in the Rcviie d^ Ethnographies 1886, p. 515. 

13 



194 



THE ASIAN RACE. 



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LECTURE VIL 



THE ASIAN RACE. 

Contents. — Physical geography of Asia- Physical traits of the 
Race. Its branches. 

I. The Sinitic Branch. Sub-divisions, i. The Chinese, Origin 
and early migrations. Psychical elements. Arts. Religions. 
Philosophers. Late migrations. 2. The Thibetan Group. Char- 
acter. Physical traits. Tribes, 3. The Indo-Chinese Group. 
Members. Character and culture. 

II. The Sibiric Branch. Synonyms. Location. Physical ap- 
pearance. I. The Tungusic Group. Members. Location. Char- 
acter. 2. Mongolic Group. Migrations. 3. The Tartaric Group. 
History. Language. Customs. 4. The Finnic Group. Origin 
and migrations- Physical traits. Boundaries of the Siberic Peo- 
ples. The " Turanian " theories. 5. The Arctic Group. Mem- 
bers. Location. Physical traits. 6. The Japanese Group. Mem- 
bers. Location. History. Culture. The Koreans. 

If you observe the relief of the continent of Asia, 
you will note that from the lofty plateau of Pamir, 
called by the orientals '' The Roof of the World,'' two 
tremendous mountain chains diverge, the one to the 
northeast, finally reaching the sea of Ochotsk, the 
other to the southeast, meeting the southern ocean on 
the west of the bay of Bengal. The region between 
them is one of high and arid table lands, intersected 
by mountain ranges, and giving birth to streams 
which flow in circuitous courses to the eastern sea. 

(195) 



/ 



196 THE ASIAN RACE. 

Along the coast the land sinks to alluvial plains, and 
north of this triangle, the endless forests, steppes, and 
" tundras " of Siberia and Turkestan continue to the 
Arctic sea. 

The region thus described is the continent of Asia 
in the proper geological and zoological sense ; the val- 
leys of the Oxus, of Mesopotamia, and the land to the 
west of them, properly belong to Europe, and in fact, 
are included by naturalists in that continent, under the 
name '' Eurasia.""^ 

Asia proper is thus divided into two contrasted 
geographical areas, that of the table-lands and moun- 
tains on the south, and that of the plains on the north. 
These features have been decisive in directing the nti- 
grations of its inhabitants, and to some extent in mod- 
ifying their traits. The vast majority, however, are 
distinctly recognizable members of one race, which 
has been variously termed the Asiatic, the Mongolian^ 
or the Yellow race. 

Physical Traits of the Asian Race.— As the last 
mentioned adjective intimates, the prevailing color is 
yellowish, tending in different regions toward a brown 
/ or white, but never reaching the clear white of the 

western European. The hair is straight, coarse and 
\ black, abundant on the head, scanty on the face, al- 
/ most absent on the body. The stature is medium or 
1 undersized, the legs thin, and the muscular power in- 
ferior to that of the Eurafrican race. The skull has a 
tendency to the globular form (meso- or brachyceph- 

* Cf. A. R. Wallace, Geog7'aphical Distribution of Animals. 



DIVISIONS OF ASIAN RACE. I97 

alic), the face is round, the cheek bones prominent, 
the nose flat at the bridge and depressed at the ex- 
tremity, the eyes are small and black, and the lids do 
not open fully at the inner angle, giving the peculiar 
appearance known as the oblique or Mongolian eye. 
This last trait is not uncommon in the children of 
Europeans, but it is generally outgrown. It is in the 
adult an arrest of muscular development, although in 
some instances it seems related to the bony confirma- 
tion of the orbit.''' 

Subdivisions. — These are the general traits of the 
Asian race, recurring more or less prominently 
wherever its members of pure descent are found. It 
is divisible, however, into two branches, correspond- 
ing roughly with the two geographical divisions of the 
continent to which I have alluded. The first of these 
branches I call the Sinitic, from the old Greek form 
of the word China, the other the Sibiric, an adjective 
from the proper orthography of the name Siberia 
(Sibiria). These branches are contrasted not only 
in geographical location, but quite as much so in 
language. The Sinitic peoples speak isolating, tonic, 
monosyllabic languages, while the tongues of the Sibi- 
ric population are polysyllabic and agglutinative. 

I. The Sinitic Branch. 

This branch includes the people of the Chinese em- 
pire and Farther India. They are separable into three 
groups : — 

* This is Mantegazza's opinion, A 7r/iww per V A iiti' apologia, 1888, 
p. 121, sq. 



198 THE ASIAN RACE. 

1. The Chinese proper; 

2. The Thibetans ; and 

3. The Indo-Chinese of Siam, Anam, Burmah, and 
Cochin China. 

The languages of all these have peculiar features 
and'%uch affinities that they all point to one ancestral 
stock. 

J. The Chinese, 

The population of China as we know it at present is 
the result of a fusion of a number of tribes of con- 
nected lineage. Those who claim the purest blood 
relate that somewhere about five thousand years ago 
their ancestors came from the vicinity of the Kuen-lun 
mountains, east of the Plateau of Pamir, and follow- 
ing the head waters of the Hoang-ho and Yang-tse- 
Kiang entered the northwestern province of China, 
Shen-si. Here they found a savage people, the Lolo 
and the Miaotse, whom they subjected or drove out, 
and pursuing the river valleys, reached the fertile low- 
lands along the coast. Their authentic annals begin 
about 2350 B. C. Even then they had attained a re- 
spectable stage of civilization, being a stable popula- 
tion, devoted to agriculture, acquainted vv^ith bronze, 
possessing domestic animals, and constructors of cities. 
The hoariest traditions speak of the cultivation of the 
'^ six field fruits,'' which were three kinds of millet, 
barley, rice, and beans. The sorghum, wheat, and 
oats now common in parts of China are of compara- 
tively recent introduction. 



ORIGIN OF CHINESE x\RTS. I99 

I 

It is interesting to inquire whether these ancient arts 
possessed by the Chinese were self-developed, or were 
borrowed in part from the Eurafrican peoples of Iran 
or Mesopotamia. The former opinion is that defended 
by Peschel and some other ethnographers. They 
claim that the culture of the Chinese was developed 
independently in the secluded and fertile valleys of 
their great rivers, and owed nothing to the evolution 
of other civilizations until commerce and travel 
brought them together within historic times. The in- 
dividual character of Chinese ancient culture speaks 
strongly for this view ; certainly the Chinese system of 
writing is one based entirely on their range and 
method of thought ; their domestic animals are of va- 
rieties formerly unknown in western Asia ; and the 
growth of many undoubted local industries, silk for 
instance, for which they were celebrated in the days of 
the prophet Ezekiel, prove an ancient capacity for self- 
development not inferior to the Eurafrican race. 

On the other hand, their astronomical system, which 
was in use 2300 B. C, is practically identical with that 
of the Arabs and Indo-Aryans, and points for its ori- 
gin to the Chaldees of Babylonia. In later days, that 
is, since the beginning of our era, undoubtedly much 
that has been looked upon as the outcrop of Chinese 
culture is due to the Indo-Aryans. My own conclu- 
sion is that in all important elements the ancient Chi- 
nese civilization was a home product, a spontaneous 
growth of an intellectually gifted people, but one 
whose capacity of development was limited, and that 



) 



200 THE ASIAN RACE. 

later generations were satisfied to borrow and appro- 
priate from the nations with whom commerce brought 
them into contact. 

This insufficiency of development is the weak point 
of Chinese character, and is strikingly illustrated by 
the little use they made of important discoveries. 
They were acquainted as early as 121 A. D. with the 
power of the magnet to point to the north ; but the 
needle was never used in navigation, but only as a toy. 
They manufactured powder, long before the Euro- 
peans, but only to put it in fire-crackers. They in- 
vented printing with movable type in the eleventh 
century, but never adopted it in their printing offices. 
They have domesticated cattle for thousands of years, 
but do not milk the cows nor make butter. Paper 
money has been in circulation for centuries, but the 
scales and weight still decide the value of gold and 
silver, coins of these precious metals being imknown. 
Their technical skill in the arts is astonishing, but the 
inspiration of the beautiful is wholly absent. 

These historic facts disclose the psychical elements 
of Chinese character. Its fundamental traits are so- 
briety, industry, common sense, practicality. The 
Chinaman regards solely what is visibly useful, mate- 
rially beneficial. His arts and sciences, his poems and 
dramas, his religions and philosophies, all revolve 
around the needs and pleasures of his daily life. 
Such terms as altruism, the ideal, the universal, have 
for him no sort of meaning, and an explanation of 
them he would look upon as we do on the emptiest 



RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 201 

subtleties of the schoolmen — a chimera bombinans in 
vacuo. Such an action as the martyr dying to atone 
for the sins of others he could understand only as the 
action of a deranged mind. 

Their mental character is well shown in their reli- 
gions. Originally, the Chinese combined a simple 
worship of the powers of nature with that of the spirits 
of their ancestors. The principal deity was Tien, the 
Heaven or Sky, in union with whom was the Earth, 
and from this union all nature proceeded. This nat- 
ural and sexual dualism extended through all things. 
The affairs of life are governed by countless demons 
and spirits, whose tempers should be propitiated by 
offerings and prayers. Days and seasons are auspi- 
cious or the reverse, and most of the rites at present 
in use are divinatory rather than devotional. 

The Buddhist religion was introduced into China 
about two centuries before Christ, and was officially re- 
cognized as a state cult by the Emperor Ming-ti in 
the year 65 A. D. Its spirit is, however, quite differ- 
ent from the Buddhism of Ceylon, as it has degener- 
ated into a polytheism, a worship of the Bodhisattvas, 
or saints who have reached the highest stage of perfec- 
tion, and might enter Nirvana, but do not, out of com- 
passion for men. In general, it may be said that the phi- 
losophical and moral principles taught in the Buddhis- 
tic classics are not known and would not be admitted 
as representing their faith by Chinese Buddhists."^ 

* D' Escayrac de Lauture, Memoires sur la Chine, Religion, p. 64 
(Paris, 1877). 



202 THE ASIAN RACE. 

The teachings of the celebrated philosopher, Confu- 
cius (Con-fu-tse), which are a substitute for rehgion 
among the most intelHgent Chinese, are in reahty 
wholly agnostic. He declined to express himself on 
any question relating to the gods or the possible after 
life of the soul, asserting that the practical interests of 
this life and the duties of a man to his family and the 
state are numerous enough and clear enough to occupy 
one's whole time. When asked for some model or 
code of such duties, he replied by the sententious ex- 
pression " When you are chopping out an axe-handle, 
the model is near you,'' meaning that it is in the hand, 
and that in a similar manner in practical life we al- 
ways have the rule of right action in our own mind, if 
w^e choose to look for it. 

The second great philosopher of China was Lao-tse, 
who lived in the generation following Confucius 
(about 500 B. C). His doctrine was pantheistic and 
obscure, and his writings are considered the most diffi- 
cult to decipher of all the old Chinese classics. Nor 
can his doctrine be called a religion. It was rather a 
mystical speculation on the tmiverse. All-Being, he 
taught, is born of Not-Being, and existence, therefore, 
is an illusion. 

Practically, all religions are looked upon as equally 
true. The Confucian will frequent the Buddhist tem- 
ples, and the Buddhist priest will perform rites in the 
'' house of reason," as the Confucian holy place is 
termed ; or he will distribute tracts for the Christian 
missionaries. The government is absolutely neutral 



RELIGIONS IN CHINA. 203 

in all religious questions, and the persecutions which 
have been carried on against the Christian mission- 
aries have not been the promptings of fanaticism, but 
dislike of foreigners and suspicion of their intentions. 
The official documents of the Chinese government 
speak with equal contempt of every form of religion, 
and the rulers would never dream of interfering in any 
such question. "^ 

Many of the Chinese are Mohammedans, Islam hav- 
ing been introduced by sea and land within the first 
century of the Hegira. The Chinese converts learn 
to repeat the Koran in Arabic, as it has not been trans- 
lated into their tongue ; but few understand much of 
it. Their rites and doctrines are learned by the ver- 
bal instruction of their religious teachers. The Chi- 
nese Mohammedans, however, recognize as their chief 
ruler the Khalif or Sultan, and not the Emperor at 
Pekin, and hence the bloody revolutions which have 
from time to time broken out among them. 

Christianity was introduced by the Nestorians in the 
eighth century, and now may be freely taught in any 
part of the realm. It has, however, had little success. 
There are perhaps half a million Ronian Catholic and 
Protestant members. They belong to the lowest 
classes, and can occupy no official position, owing to 
the conflict of their dogmas with the teachings of Con- 
fucius and the agnostic principles of the government. 

Within the last generation or two the Chinese have 

* D' Escayrac de Lauture, Memoir es sicr la Ckiney Religion, pp. 
18-20 (Paris, 1877). 



204 *THE ASIAN RACE. 

displayed an unwonted desire for emigration. They 
have swept down in hundreds of thousands on the 
islands of Malasia, Australia, the Sandwich Islands, 
Mexico, and the United States. We have as a nation 
felt so impotent before them that, in open contradic- 
tion to the principles of our government we have closed 
our ports to them, and warned them from our shores. 
This feeble and ignoble policy is a disgrace to us. 
Far better to admit them, and to train earnest men 
among us in the Chinese language and customs, so that 
these foreigners could be brought to a knowledge of 
the superiority of our religions and institutions, and 
thus be united with us in the advancement of mankind. 

2, The Thibetan Group. 

The mountain- ringed land of Thibet is an arid 
region from 10,000 to 20,000 feet in height, thickly 
inhabited by a people whose principal interests in life 
are religious. It is the centre of northern Buddhism, 
and at the holy city of Lhasa the living incarnation of 
the founder of that cult is supposed to live. In the 
numerous monasteries, some on almost inaccessible 
mountain sides, tens of thousands of monks pass their 
lives in religious exercises. They are vowed to celi- 
bacy, and throughout the land it is looked upon as a 
distinct degradation to marry. The natural result is 
that the relations of the sexes are relaxed, and their 
morals debased. Polygamy is not uncommon, and in 
Thibet, more than anywhere else, we find the peculiar 
institution of polyandry, where a woman has two, 



FARTHER INDIA. 205 

three or four recognized husbands. It is usual for 
several brothers thus to have the same wife. 

The women are small but well made, and exercise 
an unusual control in the affairs of life. The physical 
traits of both sexes are Mongolian, though the eyes 
are rarely oblique. The culture is rather low, the 
Thibetan not being an ardent agriculturist, but prefer- 
ring the pastoral life. He milks his cows and makes 
butter, which with h'des and fleece, leather and some 
local fabrics, are his principal articles of trade. 

In the Himalayan valleys to the south are several 
nations in which the Asian blood dominates, such as 
the Ladakis of Cashmere, the Nepalese, the inhabi- 
tants of Bhotan and numerous others. They are gen- 
erally mixed with Dravidian or Aryac blood, but 
speak dialects of the Sinitic type. 

J. The Indo-Chinese Group. 

The regions we call Farther India and Cochin China 
are at present inhabited by peoples speaking tonic, 
monosyllabic languages, who are, however, generally 
of mixed descent. Some of them have crimpled hair 
and a dark complexion, suggesting the presence of 
some Nigritic blood ; others have features more Aryac 
than Mongolian, hinting at an ancient fusion of Hin- 
doostanee strains. These form the modern nations of 
Birma, Siam, Annam, Cambodia, Tonkin, and Cochin 
China. 

The Birmans have a well marked round head 
(about 83°), oblique eyes, prominent cheek bones, and 



206 THE ASIAN RACE. 

are of medium stature and sturdy. Their color is a 
brownish yellow or olive. In religion they are Budd- 
hists, but they are by no means celebrated for honesty 
and morality. By a curious freak of fashion, the dress 
of the women is open in front, but it is the height of 
immodesty to show the naked foot. 

The Siamese call themselves ^' Thai,'' under which 
designation come also the Laos. They are a mild 
mannered people, without much energy, but willing to 
be taught. 

The Annamese and Tonkinese are somewhat su- 
perior in culture to their neighbors, and of well 
marked Asiatic physiognomy. The Cambodians, called 
Khmers, are a mixed people, descended partly from 
Mongolian ancestry, partly from Dravidian and Aryac 
conquerors who occupied their country about the third 
century, and left behind remarkable vestiges of their 
presence in ruins of vast temples and stone- built pal- 
aces. 

II. The Sibiric Branch. 

The branch of the Asian race which I have called 
the Sibiric, as geographically designating its pre- 
historic home, has also been called the Turanian, the 
Ural-Altaic, the Finno-Ugric, the Mongolic, etc. Its 
geographical location is north of the Altai range, and 
the Caspian and Black seas, and from the Pacific to 
the Atlantic ocean. The languages of all its members 
are polysyllabic and agglutinative, contrasting as 
much with the Sinitic stock on the one hand as with 



THE SIBIRIC TYPE. 20^ 

the Aryac on the other. In physical appearance in- 
dividuals of reasonably pure descent present good 
specimens of the Asian type, the skull brachycephalic, 
the face round, the nose flat at the root, the eye small 
and black, the hair straight and coarse, the color yel- 
lowish. They are divided into many tribes, most of 
whom were until recently addicted to a wandering 
pastoral life, and though on the lower levels of culture 
and without coherent social bonds, they have at times 
loomed up as the most powerful and pretentious fig- 
ures in the history of the world. 
Furthest to the east is 

J. The Tungusic Group, 

Which occupies the coast from the northern boundary 
of China to Kamschatka, and westward to the Yenis- 
sei river. It embraces the Manchus and the Tun- 
gus. The former, a bold hardy people, possessed 
themselves of the throne of China early in the seven- 
teenth century, and continue to rule it by a military 
despotism, adapted with consummate skill to the pe- 
culiarities of Chinese character. This has led to an 
extensive fusion of Sinitic blood among the Manchus, 
and also an improvement in their social status. They 
have become Buddhists, and their language is losing 
ground before the Chinese. 

The Tungus to the north of them, inhabiting a 
vast district of forest, swamp and mountain, east of 
the Yenissei river, are of ruder life. They depend 
for subsistence on the chase and on their large herds 



208 THE ASIAN RACE. 

of reindeer. In religion they adhere to the worship 
of the powers of nature, and are under the control of 
their priests or '' shamans.'' They present a well 
marked Asiatic type, a brachycephalic skull (8i°), 
round face and oblique eyes, the hair coarse and 
straight, , the beard scanty. In stature they are of 
medium height, strongly built, and the senses of sight 
and hearing unusually keen. 

Like most nations dwelling in or near the Arctic 
zone, the disposition of the Tungus is decidedly cheer- 
ful and affable. He is hospitable to strangers, and 
honorable in his dealings. In habits, however, he has 
no notion of cleanliness, and the Tatar name applied 
to him — tongus, hog— expresses what his not over-nice 
neighbors think of his mode of life. 

The tribes were subjected to the Russian domina- 
tion about 1650, and have been gradually improving 
their condition. A portion of them called Lamuts 
reside on the sea of Ochotsk, and have fixed villages 
with houses built in the Russian style. "^ 

2. The MongoHc Group 

had their original home in Mongolia, a vast arid coun- 
try south of the Altai range, and west of Manchuria. 
Before the Christian era they had extended north be- 
yond the mountains and occupied the land around 
Lake Baikal, whence they proceeded easterly, and un- 
der the name of Kalmucks have settled quite to the 

* A. F. Rittich, Die EtJutographie Russlaitds^ ss. 20-24. 



MONGOL CONQUERORS. ' 20g 

river Volga. Few of them are agriculturists, it being 
their preference to wander over the pastures with their 
flocks. Their religion is a debased form of Buddhism 
grafted on their ancient fetichism. In physical type 
they are true Asiatics, and are of a restless, warlike 
disposition. 

In the extended region which they inhabit, stretch- 
ing over seventy degrees of longitude, they have had 
space to multiply until their numbers once became a 
menace to all other nations of the Eurasian continent. 
Under Genghis Khan, in the beginning of the thir- 
teenth century, they poured down in countless hordes 
on the cultivated nations of Asia and Europe, and in a 
few years established a monarchy, the then greatest in 
the world. About a century later his descendant, the 
sanguinary Tamerlane, swept Asia from the Indian 
Ocean to the Arctic circle ; and at the close of yet an- 
other century Baber, of the same redoubted lineage, 
founded the empire of the Great Mogul (Mongol) in 
India, extending from the Indus to the Ganges. Based, 
however, on despotism, barbarism and fanaticism, 
these gigantic states disappeared in a few generations, 
leaving scarcely a trace of their existence except the 
ruins of the higher civilizations which they had 
destroyed. 

J. The Tataric Group. 

Deri\ ed its name from the Chinese word ta-ta, and 

is incorrectly written Tartar. Another Chinese name 

applied to them was Tu-khi, from which is derived 

our w^ord ^' Turk." 
14 



210 • THE ASIAN RACE. 

The earliest home of the Tatars or Turks was in 
Turkestan, north of the Plateau of Pamir and in the 
immediate vicinity of the Persian Aryans. Long be- 
fore the beginning of the Christian era their preda- 
tory bands had repeatedly invaded the territory of the 
Aryans and the Semites, and quite down to two cen- 
turies ago the states which they had founded were 
looked upon with dread by the mightiest potentates of 
Europe. The Chinese annals speak of their inroads 
into that empire more than 200 years before our era. 

At the period of the migration of nations which 
accompanied the dismemberment and fall of the Ro- 
man Empire, the Tatars appeared frequently in Eu- 
rope, always as ruthless devastators. Attila, ^' the 
scourge of God,'' with his bands of Huns, the Avari, 
and the Bulgari, who followed in his wake, the Turco- 
mans and the Cossacks, and finally the Osmanli Turks 
whose descendants now govern European and Asiatic 
Turkey, and whose Sultan is the political head of the 
Mohammedan world, all belong in this group. 

It is needless to say that in these rovings they have 
undergone much admixture. The modern Turk has 
more of the blood of the Semite and the Circassian in 
his veins than of his Tartar ancestors ; but his language 
has maintained a singular purity, and the Tartar hun- 
ter, the Jakout, in the delta of the Lena on the frozen 
ocean, finds no difficulty in understanding its ordinary 
expressions. The Jakout speaks indeed the purest 
and most ancient form of the idiom, '' The Sanscrit of 
the Tatar," as it has been called by Friedrich Miiller. 



COSSACKS AND TATARS. 211 

The peculiarity of this language is that it has a law 
of vocalic harmony, b}^ which the various suffixes 
added to the root change the vowels they contain in 
accordance with the vowel of the root. It has not 
only a pleasing sound, but superior flexibility and an 
unusual capacity to express fine shades of meaning. 
It is, however, losing ground both in Europe and 
Asia, as are all the agglutinative languages. 

Next to the Turks, the Cossacks and Kirghis Tatars 
are prominent members of the stock. They are closely 
related, being branches of the same dialectic family. 
The former wander over the steppes between the Sea 
of Aral and the main chain of the Altai. It is not 
known when they occupied this region, but it was 
within historic times, and they drove from it a people 
of higher civilization, acquainted with the use of 
bronze and brass, and dwellers in cities."^ The Kir- 
ghis themselves build no houses, but dwell in felt tents 
called '' yourts.'' They did not cultivate the soil, de- 
riving their food from their flocks and herds, but of 
late years have begun a careless agriculture. In re- 
ligion they profess Mohammedanism., but in reality 
they cling to their ancient Shamanistic superstitions. 

4. The Finnic Group 
Has lived for certainly two thousand years or more in 
Northern Europe. Tt is mentioned by Tacitus, and its 
traditions as well as its dialects support this antiquity. 

* Nicholas Seeland, *' Les Kirghis," in Revue d^ Anthropologies 
1886, p. 27. 



212 THE ASIAN RACE. 

That it ever extended, as many theorists pretend, into 
Central or Southern Europe, may now be dismissed 
as an obsolete hypothesis, disproved by craniological 
studies and a closer scrutiny of the alleged linguistic 
resemblances which have been urged. The probabil- 
ity is that the Finns and Lapps had the same ancestors 
as the Samoyeds of Northern Siberia, who once lived 
on the upper streams of the Yenissei in the Sajanic 
mountains and around Lake Baikal. The Laplanders 
are said still to retain some reminiscence of the migra- 
tion, and the verbal affinities of the Finnic and Samo- 
yedic demonstrate an early relationship.* 

The eastern members of the group are the Ugrians 
in the government of Tobolsk, some tribes on the 
Volga, and the Permians on the Kama river (an afflu- 
ent of the Volga). The Magyars of Hungary are a 
branch of the Ugrians who possessed themselves of 
the land in the ninth century, and who still retain their 
language, not remote from the Finnish. 

The present Finnland was first occupied by the 
Lapps or Laplanders, who were driven northward and 
westward by bands continually arriving from the east. 
The Finns, who call themselves '' Suomi,'' which is 
the same as the initial syllables of " Samo-yed,'' are 
subdivided into the Esthonians and Livonians on the 
Baltic, south of the Gulf of Finland, the Tavastes, 
Karelians, and others to the north. 

The physical type of the members of the Finnic 

* The best recent authority is Dr. Heinrich Winkler, Uralaltaische 
V'olker U7id Spracheit. (Berlin, 1884.) 



FIISiNS AND LAPPS. 21^ 

group has given rise to much discussion. Many indi- 
viduals are blondes, v/ith light hair and eyes, and with 
dolichocephalic skulls. Such are especially numerous 
among the Esthonians, Karelians, and Tavastes. But 
it must be remembered that for two or three thousand 
years these tribes have been in contact with the blonde 
and dolichocephalic type of the Aryans, represented 
by the ancient Teutonic and Slavonic groups (see 
Lect. V). It is not in the least surprising therefore 
to find the Finnic group everywhere deeply infused 
with Aryac blood. Even the remote Lapps are no 
exception. Nominally there are 25,000 or more of 
them. But Prince Roland Bonaparte says as the re- 
sult of his recent observations among them, ^' Pure 
Lapps no longer exist ;"'^ and when this is true of that 
isolated people, how much more is it of the tribes in 
closer proximity to the Eurafrican race? We may 
conclude with Professor Keane that the genuine traits 
of the Finnic group are '' fundamentally and typically 
Mongolic,'' i. e., Sibiric.f 

There is no reason to suppose that any of the Sibi- 
ric peoples extended southerly in Asia or Europe much 
beyond their present boundaries. It has been a mania 
with many ethnographers, especially linguistic eth- 
nographers, to discover '' Turanian '' peoples and di- 
alects in numerous parts of southern and central Eu- 
rope. They would have it that the Basques, the Etrus- 

* Note on the Lapps of Fintnark, p. 8. (Paris, 1886.) 

* A. H. \<i.Q2i.i\Q, /our7ial of the Anthropological Institute^ Vol. XV., 
p. 218. 



214 THE ASIAN RACE. 

cans, the Ligurians, the Pelasgians, were '^ Turanian ;" 
that the prehistoric inhabitants of Palestine, the Hitt- 
ites, and the Shepherd Kings of Egypt, were also of 
this ilk. They are like those other ethnographers who 
find '' Mongoloid '' indications everywhere, in America, 
in Polynesia, even among the Bushmen of South 
Africa. As Friedrich Miiller says of these writers, 
'' Mongolian '' is a sack into which everything is 
crammed by them. There is no true science in catch- 
ing at superficial resemblances or exalting remote an- 
alogies while fixed distinctions are disregarded. 

5. The Arctic Group, 

In northeastern Siberia, close to the Arctic circle, 
and occupying the territory between the Pacific and 
Arctic oceans, dwell a number of tribes in a condition 
of barbarism. Their languages are in general form of 
the Sibiric type ; their physical traits vary, indicating 
frequent admixture. In color they are rather dark, 
and the skull is generally slightly dolichocephalic. 

Of these the Chukchis occupy the extreme north- 
east of the continent. Nordenskjold, who saw much 
of them, considers them the mixed descendants of va- 
rious tribes, driven from more hospitable regions to the 
south. "^ Some of them have a marked Mongolic as- 
pect, but the majority differ from that type. They are 
yellowish-brown in color, prominent nose, tail in 
stature, and well built. They are active hunters and 

* N. A. E, de Nordenskjold, in Rev7ie d'' Ethnographies 1884, p. 
402 ; also A. F. Rittich, Die Ethnographie Russland s. 12 (Gotha, 

1878). 



EAST CAPE PEOrLE. 21 5 

fishermen. The Namollos are a sedentary branch of 
the Chukchis, and both are related to the Koraks and 
Kamschatkans. The Namollos live along the Arctic 
coast, near East Cape, while the Koraks live to the 
south. '' Kora '' means '' reindeer,'' and they are es- 
sentially the reindeer people, that useful animal being 
their chief wealth. Close to East Cape, and south- 
ward along the coast of Behring sea, are Eskimo tribes. 
They have lived there from the first discovery of the 
coast, and doubtless long before. Indeed, as far as 
tradition goes, the movements of the Eskimos have 
been from America into Asia, and not the reverse, un- 
til they were driven back by the advancing Chukchis."^ 

The Kamschatkans to the south are of small 
stature, but strongly formed. They live upon fish, 
and are skillful in the use of dogs for sleds. They 
number only about 2000 souls, and are disappearing. 

The Ghiliaks live near the mouth of the Amoor 
river and on the Saghalin islands. They are a mixed 
people, the cephalic index varying from 74 to 85 ; some 
of them have abundant beards, which is very rare 
among the pure Asiatics. f 

* I have followed in this obscure subject W. H. Dall, " On the so- 
called Chukchi and NamoUo People of Eastern Siberia " in the 
American Naturalist, 1881, p. 857. Rittich says, erroneously, that 
the Namollos are not related to the Chukchis. {Die Ethnographie 
Rtissland, s. 15.) The relationship of the Chukchi, Korak and 
Kamschatkan is demonstrated by Heinrich Winkler, Uralaltdische 
Volker tind Spracheii, s. 120. 

t }• Deniker, Les Ghiliaks d^apres les derniers Rejiseigne?nents, pp. 
5, 17. (Paris, 1884.) 



2l6 THE ASIAN RACE. 

The Aleutians, who occupy the long chain of islands 
reaching from Kamschatka to Alaska, are of medium 
height, fiat nose, black eyes and hair, and meso- 
cephalic. They belong to the American, not to the 
Asian race. 

Most of these peoples speak tongues differing widely 
among themselves, but of the agglutinative type. 
They are in no way related to the American languages, 
and are equally remote from the Mongolian. 

6. The Japanese Group. 

The Japanese cannot claim purity of descent. Their 
complexion and frequent crisp or wavy hair indicate 
that their Asian origin has been modified by other 
blood. They were not the earliest inhabitants of the 
archipelago they occupy, but moved into it probably 
about a thousand years before the Christian era."^ 
The immigrants seem from some linguistic evidence 
to have come from Manchuria or Mongolia, and to 
have found upon the islands a different people, the 
Ainos (properly Ainu) remarkable for their heavy 
beards and hairy persons. These Have now been 
driven to the northernmost portion of the archipelago, 
where about 1200 of them still reside. It was long 
thought that the languages of the Ainos and Japanese 
have some affinities, but except in loan words and a 
general phonetic resemblance, this has now been dis- 

* The date of the foundation of the Japanese ecclesiastical empire 
is put at 660 B.C. D'Escayrac de Lauture, La Chine et les Chinois^ 
Vol. I, p. 17. 



JAPANESE TRAITS. 2\*J 

r 

proved. The Ainos seem physically related to the 
Ghiliaks, and came from the north and west. They 
are supposed to have been the first occupants of the 
Kurile islands. 

Like other mixed peoples, the Japanese vary so 
much in height, form of skull, hue and bodily propor- 
tion, that it is impracticable to set up any fixed type 
for them, further than to say that their general Asiatic 
aspect is usually unmistakable to the trained eye.* 
In mental qualities they are gifted, being intelligent, 
artistic, brave, kind, and honorable, fully alive to the 
benefits of a high civilization, and able to accept with 
profit all that the western world has to offer.f They 
are monogamists, and the position of woman has al- 
ways been respected among them. The prevailing 
religion is the Shintoism or worship of the powers of 
nature, but Buddhism, introduced in the 7th century, 
has also many votaries. At heart, however, they are 
an irreligious people, like the Chinese, and are un- 
concerned about the ideal and the mystical. Many of 
their arts, like that of writing, were at first learned 
from the Chinese ; but they have improved upon them, 
and given them other directions, as in the develop- 
ment of their phonetic from the Chinese syllabic 
alphabet. 

* For details, see Hovelacque et Herve, Precis d^ Anthropologies 
p. 468-470. 

t An admirable analysis of the physical traits of the Japanese will 
be found in the Journal of Speculative Philosophy^ Vol. VI., written 
by Benjamin Smith Lyman, long a resident among them. 



2l8 THE ASIAN RACE. 

Japanese art has attracted in recent years the ad- 
miration of the European world, and many motives in 
it have been accepted by our lovers of decorative 
effects. It is indeed wonderful in its technical finish, 
and its theory of composition has novelties which are 
worthy of imitation, but it is devoid of that something 
which we call the ideal ; and its canon of proportion of 
the human body has never been developed to approach 
the classical models. 

There is an extensive literature in the Japanese 
tongue. Most of it deals with practical subjects, and 
even the poetry is usually didactic in spirit. 

The Koreans seem originally to have come from the 
same stock as the ancestors of the Japanese. They 
are of more positive Asiatic type, and are a mixed 
people, the ruling class (the Kaoli) having conquered 
the peninsula in the second century before our era. 
They closely resemble the Loochoo islanders, and 
doubtless are consanguine with them. Their indus- 
tries are similar to those of Japan, which country, 
indeed, obtained many of its arts from China by way 
of the Korean peninsula. 



LECTURE VIII. 



INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

Contents. — Variability of islanders and coast peoples. Physical 
geography of Oceanica. Ethnographic divisions. 

I. The Negritic Stock. Subdivisions, i. The Negritic Group. 
Members. Former extension. Physical aspect. Culture. 2. The 
Papuan Group. Location. Physical traits. Culture and lan- 
guage. 3. The Melanesian Group. Physical traits. Habits. 
Languages. Ethnic affinities of Papuas and Melanesians. 

II. The Malayic Stock. Location. Subdivisions. Affinities 
with the Asian Race and original home. i. The Western or 
Malayan Group. Physical traits. Character. Extension. Cul- 
ture. Presence in Hindostan. 2. The Eastern or Polynesian 
Group. Physical traits. Migrations. Character and culture. 
Easter Island. 

III. The AusTRALic Stock. Affinities between the Australians 
and Dra vidians, i. The Australian Group. Tasmanians and 
Australians. Physical traits. Culture. 2, The Dravidian Group. 
Early extension. Members. Culture. Languages. 

Before proceeding to the ethnography of the Amer- 
ican continent, I would have you take a rapid survey 
of the inhabitants of that extensive archipelago whose 
islands are thickly dotted in the Indian and Pacific 
oceans, and ascertain as far as may be the relation- 
ship in which they stand to the population of the ad- 
jacent coasts. 

It w^as Darwin's theory that the distant progenitor 

of man was an amphibious marine animal, and cer- 

(219) 



220 



INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 



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EFFECTS OF ISLANDS. 221 

tainly from earliest times he has had a predilection for 
water-ways and the sea-coast. The hnes of these have 
always directed his wanderings, and it is not surprising 
therefore that nowhere do we find the physical types of 
the race so confusingly amalgamated as in the insular 
littoral peoples. Not only is transit easier in these 
localities, but on islands especially there is a more 
rapid intermingling and a closer interbreeding than is 
apt to occur in continental areas. This not only 
blends types, but it has another effect. It is well 
known from observation on the lower animals that 
such close unions result in the formation of more 
plastic organisms, liable to present wide variations, and 
to develop into contrasting characters."^ This holds 
good also of mental products. For instance, you 
might suppose that the dialects of the same island or 
the same small archipelago would ofifer very slight 
differences. The reverse is the case. In the same 
area the dialects of an island differ far more than on 
the mainland. This is a fact well known to linguists, 
and is parallel to the physical variations. f The ethno- 
grapher, therefore, is prepared to attach less impor- 
tance to corporeal and linguistic differences in insular 
than in continental peoples. 

* This subject has been presented with great amplitude of illus- 
tration by the late Moritz Wagner. See Die Entstehttiig der Arte7t 
durch rdtunliche Sojtderitng, Basel, 1889. 

t Dr. Finsch, for instance, mentions that on the little island of 
Tanna, in Melanesia, nearly every village has a dialect unintelligible 
to its neighbors. Anthrop. Ergebnisse eiiier Reise i?t der Sudsee^ s. 
38. (Berlin, 1884.) 



222 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

Physical Geography of Oceanica. — The island world 
of the Indian and Pacific Oceans is divided geologi- 
cally into two regions, Australasia and Polynesia. 
The former, as its name denotes, is really a south- 
easterly prolongation of the continent of Asia, and 
was united to it in late tertiary times. The huge 
islands of Sumatra, Java and Borneo are separated 
from the Malayan and Siamese peninsulas by chan- 
nels scarcely a couple of hundred feet deep ; and from 
these a chain of islands extends uninterruptedly to 
the semi-continent of Australia. All these islands 
are of tertiary formation, and the subsidence which 
separated them from the main took place at the close 
of that geologic epoch. 

The Polynesian islands, on the other hand, are of 
recent construction. They are submarine towers of 
coral, erected on the crests of sunken mountain ranges 
rising on the floor of a profoundly deep sea. Never- 
theless the flora and fauna of Polynesia resemble that 
of Australasia in its strongly Asiatic character. 

The islands of the Indian Ocean present some sin- 
gular anomalies. Ceylon, though so close to the In- 
dian peninsula, is not a geological fragment of it ; while 
Madagascar, though four thousand miles away, was 
unquestionably once a part of Southern Hindostan."^' 
This, however, was in remote eocene tertiary times, 
and long before man appeared. The hypothesis,. there- 

* This lost continent is sometimes called Gondwana land, from 
the recurrence of the Gondwana formation in Hindostan, Madagas- 
car, and the east coast of Africa. See Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde, 
Bd. ii. 



ANCIENT LEMURIA. 223 

fore, advanced by Haeckel and favored by Peschel and 
other ethnographers, that the Indian Ocean was once 
filled by the contment '' Lemnria,'' and that there man 
appeared on the globe, must be dismissed so far as 
man is concerned, as in conflict with more accurate 
observations. 

Yet one must acknowledge that it has some plausi- 
bility from the present ethnography of the islands and 
coasts of the Indian Ocean. There is a general con- 
sensus of opinion that the earliest occupants of these 
regions were an undersized black race, resembling in 
many respects the negrillos of Austafrica. Upon these 
was superimposed an Asiatic stock represented by the 
modern Malays ; and the union of these two strains 
gave rise to the anomalous tribes which occupy South- 
ern Hindostan, Australia, and some of the islands. 

This historic scheme, which has a great deal in its 
favor, permits me to classify the great island-world 
and its adjacent mainland into three ethnographic 
categories as represented on the diagram. 

Of these the most ancient* is 

I. The Negritic Stock. 

This embraces three subdivisions, (i) the Negritos, 
(2) the Papuas, (3) the Melanesians. 

I. The Negrito Group. 

The Negritos may be called the western branch of the 
stock. It is noteworthy that they are located nearer 
to Africa, and that they more distinctly resemble the 



224 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

Negrillo stock of that continent than do the Papuas. 
To them belong the natives of the Andaman Islands 
known as Mincopies, the Semangs, Mantras, and Sa- 
kaies of Malacca, the Aetas of the Philippine Islands, 
and the Schobaengs of the Nicobar Isles. '^ It is highly 
probable that they inhabited a large part of Southern 
Hindostan, perhaps before it was united to the Him- 
alayan highlands (see p. 88), and some have been re- 
ported in Formosa. 

They are believed to have been the original posses- 
sors of Borneo, Java, Sumatra and the Celebes Islands, 
as well as parts of Indo-China; but except in some 
mixed tribes, as the Mois of the latter region, their 
stock has disappeared from those localities. It is 
noteworthy that not a trace of their blood has been 
found in Asia north of the Hindu Cush and Himalaya 
ranges. f Some writers have thought that they pro- 
ceeded along the eastern islands as far north as the 
Japanese archipelago, and would e'xplain some of the 
present physical traits of its inhabitants by an ancient 
infusion of Negritic blood. 

In physical aspect they are of small stature, not 
more than one^fourth of the adult males reaching five 

* The word aeta is Malayan, and means "black." There is some 
doubt about the Semangs, as some of them are fair. See Journal 
of the Anthropolos^ical Institute^ 1886, p. 429, and compare F. de 
Castelnau in the Revue de philologie et (f ethnographies 1876, p. 
174. sq. 

t The Susians in the lower valley of the Euphrates show in color 
and hair an infusion of Negro blood, but this is attributable to the 
introduction of slaves into that region from Africa. (Cf. Revtie d"* 
Anthropologie, 1888, p. 79.) 



THE NEGRITOS. 22$ 

feet in height ; their color is black, hair woolly, nearly 
beardless, and the body smooth. The nose is flat, the 
face moderately prognathic, and the skull generally 
globular (mesocephalic index 8o°~8i^)j but on the 
Philippines and in Indo-China rather dolichocephalic. 
Their forms are symmetrical, though they are thin- 
legged, without calves ; their movements agile and 
graceful >' 

They are averse to culture, and depend on hunting 
and fishing. As weapons, they know the bow and 
arrow, the lance, and the sarbacane or blow-pipe, but 
have not acquired the art of chipping stone. When 
they use that material, they split it by exposure to fire. 
They are timid and distrustful of strangers, and they 
well may be, as they have been pursued remorselessly 
by slave-catching pirates, and v/ere constantly exposed 
to the brutal aggressions of their stronger neighbors. 

The portrait presented of their tribal customs is 
rather pleasing. The social organization is based on 
the family, the heads of which elect the tribal chieftain, 
and their respect for the dead amounts to a religion. 
Beyond the ancestral worship they have few rites, 
though some ceremonies are performed to appease the 
evil spirits, and others at the time of full moon and 
thunderstorms, and at births and deaths. Among 
their myths is one relating to a mythical great serpent, 

* For an excellent study of the Andaman islanders, see E. H. Man, 
\Y\. JoJirnal of Anthropological Institute^ Vol. XIL, etc. F. Blumen- 
tritt describes the Negritos of the Philippines with head and features 
thoroughly Negro like. [Ethnographie der Philippinen^ s. 5, Gotha, 
1882.) 

15 



^2^ INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

who seems to be a beneficent deity, pointing out to 
them where game abounds, and where the bees have 
deposited wild honey. They are monogamous, and 
neither steal nor buy their wives, the lover arranging 
the matter with his chosen one, and then sending a 
present to her father. They have learned the luxury 
of tobacco, and prize it highly, but for alcoholic bever- 
ages they have no longing. As they are migratory, 
their house building is limited to shelters of light ma- 
terials, and for clothing a breech-cloth is sufficient.* 

In so many respects, geographical as well as phys- 
ical, do these dwarfish blacks stand between the Negro 
peoples of Austafrica and Australasia that we are not 
surprised at the conclusion suggested by Prof. W. H. 
Flower, that they may be '' the primitive type from 
which the African Negroes on the one hand, and the 
Melanesians on the other, may have sprung.'' f 

2, The Papuan Group 
Is found in its purity on the great island of New 

* Dr. J. Montano, in Revue d^ Anthropologies 1886, p. 691 ; F. Blu- 
mentritt, Ethnographie der Philippinen^ s. 7. (Gotha, 1882.) The 
description applies principally to the Negritos of these islands, where 
they number about 10,000 persons. 

t Flower, " On the Osteology and Affinities of the Natives of the 
Andaman Islands," \vl Journal of the Anthropological Institute^ 1880, 
p. 132. The same position is taken by James Dallas, in the Pro- 
ceedings of the British Naturalists^ Society , 1884. He argues that the 
Negritos, Papuas and African Negroes belong to one family, the 
" Melanochroic," which in view of the continuity and isolation of the 
region it occupies must originally have been a unit. 



THE PAPUAS. 22*] 

Guinea and the chains east and west of it, but even 
there it discloses considerable diversity. In color the 
Papuas vary from a coal black to a dark brown, 
their hair is woolly, and there is considerable on the 
body and face, stature medium, legs thin. Their lips 
are thick, and the nostrils broad, but the nose is high 
and curved. Yet the best observers agree that they 
vary extremely in physiognomy, and that in New 
Guinea, tribes of equally pure blood have the skull 
sometimes broad, sometimes long. These variations 
we may attribute to the influence of insular conditions, 
or to some intermixture of blood. '^' 

The Papuas belong to the lowest stages of culture. 
Some of their tribes do not know the bow and arrow, 
and few of them have any pottery. Their languages 
are agglutinating, but have this peculiarity, that the 
modifications of the root are generally by prefixes in- 
stead of suffixes, in this respect reminding one of the 
African rather than the Sibiric families of tongues. 

Their territory includes parts of the New Hebrides, 
the Loyalty Isles, New Caledonia, Viti, and a variety 
of smaller groups. These islanders are usually of 
mixed type, and are known as ^* Melanesians.'' The 
natives of the Feejee Islands are an excellent specimen 



* See A. B. Meyer, in Mittheilungen der Wiener Anthropologischen 
Gesellschap^ 1874; and A. R. Wallace, Australasia^ pp. 452-456. 
The great diversity in color, hair, etc., is commented on by Dr. O. 
Finsch, Anthropologische Ergebnisse einer Reise in der Sudsee, p. 34. 
The difference is sometimes«by villages, some being quite fair and 
called "white Papuas," though of pure blood ostensibly. 



22.8 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

of these, and their archipelago forms the dividing line 
between the Papuan and Polynesian groups."^ 

J. The Melanesian Group. 

The Melanesians, of all the islanders, present in 
individual cases the strongest likeness to the equatorial 
African Negro ; yet among these there is that prevail- 
ing variability of type so frequent in insular peoples. 
Their color passes from the black of the typical Negro 
to the yellow of the Malayan ; their hair, generally 
frizzly, may be quite straight and of any hue from 
black to blonde. These variations are in individuals 
or families, and are not owing to mixed blood. f 

Unlike the Polynesians, the Melanesians are agricul- 
tural in habits, and sedentary. They build artistically 
decorated houses, are acquainted with the bow and 
arrow, occasionally make pottery, and construct 
shapely canoes, though not given to long voyages. 
The women are modest and chaste, and their religion 
is principally a form of ancestral worship. 

The languages of these islanders betray their com- 
pound origin. In form and in the pronominal ele- 

* See Rev. L. P^lla, " A Comparison of the Malayan and Papuan 
Races of Polynesia," in Proceeding's of the AusU'alasian Association 
for the Advancement of Science^NoX. I. (1888), p. 484, sq. The author 
writes from 26 years' intercourse with the various islanders. He 
claims that the Papuas "have distinctly African resemblances, 
habits, customs, languages, and religions." 

t These singular facts are fully supported bv the studies of Dr. O. 
Finsch, Anthropologische Ergebnisse emer Reise in der Siidsee^ s. 
34»sq. 



THE MELANESIANS. 229 

ments they stand related to the Malayan and Poly- 
nesian idioms, and in structure approach sometimes 
the richness of the former. In the Viti, for example, 
both prefixes and suffixes are employed, and the 
possessive is added to the noun. The root words are 
monosyllables or dissyllables, and drawn from the 
Papuan idioms, and the phonetics are much richer 
than the Polynesian. 

These facts go to show that the Melanesians are 
physically and linguistically a mixed people, a com- 
pound of the woolly-haired black Papuas, whom we 
may suppose to have been the aborigines of Melanesia, 
with the smooth-haired, light-colored Malays, who 
reached the archipelago as adventurers and immi- 
grants. As their tongues form, as it were, the second 
stratum of structure when compared with the Poly- 
nesian dialects, we can go a step further and say that 
the ethnic formation of the Melanesian islanders oc- 
curred subsequently to the construction of the Poly- 
nesian physical type and languages."^ 

The ethnic relationship of the various adjoining 
islanders to the Papuas has been studied by many 
observers, but its solution has not yet been reached. 
The Papuas themselves impressed Hale as partly 
Malayan — '' a hybrid race," f and Virchow calls atten- 
tion to the fact that a broad zone of wavy-haired peo- 

* See Fr. Miiller, GrtindjHss der Sprachwissenschafty Bd. II., Ab. 
II., s. i6o. 

t Horatio Hale, Ethnog. and PhiloL of the U. S, Exploring Ex- 
ped., p. 44. 



230 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

pies intervene between the Papuas and the pure 
Malays, shading off into the Australians on the one 
hand and the Veddahs of Ceylon on the other."^ This 
is very significant of the ethnic origin of the inhabi- 
tants of Australasia. 

It is borne out by an examination of the Papuan 
languages. These are quite dissimilar among them- 
selves, and appear to have been derived from a number 
of independent linguistic stocks. While these were 
originally distinct from the Malayan, it is a recog- 
nized fact that all the Papuan, and still more all the 
Melanesian dialects, have absorbed extensively from 
Malayan and Polynesian sources, and we are certain, 
therefore, that a similar absorption of Malayan blood 
has taken place. f 

II. The Malayict Stock 

Is by far the most important group of peoples with 
whom we have to do in the area we are now study- 
ing. Many ethnologists, indeed, set it up as a dis- 
tinct race, the " Malayan " or '/ Brown '' race, and claim 
for it an importance not less than any of the darker 
varieties of the species. It bears, however, the marks 
of an origin too recent, and presents Asian analogies 
too clearly, for it to be regarded otherwise than as a 
branch of the Asian race, descended like it from some 
ancestral tribe in that great continent. Its dispersion 

* In the Verhand. der Be7'iine7' Anthrop. Gesell.^ 1889, s. 162. 
t See Friedrich Milller, Gr^tndriss der Sprachwissenschaft^ Bd. I., 
Ab. IL, s. 30 • Bd. II., Ab, II., s. 160. 



THE MALAYIC STOCK. 23 1 

has been extraordinary. Its members are found almost 
continuously on the land areas from Madagascar to 
Easter Island, a distance nearly two-thirds of the cir- 
cumference of the globe; everywhere they speak dia- 
lects with such affinities that we must assume for all 
one parent stem, and their separation must have taken 
place not so very long ago to have permitted such a 
monoglottic trait as this. 

The stock is divided at present into two groups, the 
western or Malayan peoples, and the eastern or Poly- 
nesian peoples. There has been some discussion about 
the original identity of these, but we may consider it 
now proved by both physical, linguistic and traditional 
evidence.''' The original home of the parent stem has 
also excited some controversy, but this too may be 
taken as settled. There is no reasonable doubt but 
that the Malays came from the southeastern regions of 
Asia, from the peninsula of Farther India, and thence 
spread south, east and west over the whole of the island 
world. Their first occupation of Sumatra and Java 
has been estimated to have occurred not later than 
1000 B. C, and probably was a thousand years earlier, 
or about the time that the Aryans entered Northern 
India. 

The relationship of the Malayic with the other Asian 
stocks has not yet been made out. Physically they 

* M. O. Beauregard has compared 120 common words and numerals 
in dialects from Madagascar to Easter Island, and proves that all are 
affined to the pure Malay, though with many verbal admixtures 
from other sources. Bidletht de la Societe d"* Anthropologies 1886, pp. 
520-527. 



22^2. INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

stand near to the Sinitic peoples of small stature and 
roundish heads of southeastern Asia.'''' The oldest 
form of their language, however, was not monosyllabic 
and tonic, but was dissyllabic. Structurally, it was 
largely of the '' isolating '' type, the relations of the 
members of the proposition being expressed by loose 
words, as is still the case in some of the Polynesian 
dialects. This is scarcely recognizable in the devel- 
oped Malayan and Tagala idioms where there is a 
richly varied structure by suffixes, prefixes and in- 
fixes ; but the building up of these grammatical re- 
sources can be traced back from the simple original 
tongue, or Ursprache, I have mentioned. f We cannot 
be far wrong, therefore, in associating in some remote 
past the ancestral Malays, with their isolating, dissyl- 
labic speech, yellowish-brown complexion,, short skulls 
and small stature, with the Indo-Chinese group of the 
Sinitic branch of the Asian race. 

I. The Western or Malayan Group, 

The purest type of the true Malays is seen in Ma- 
lacca, Sumatra and Java. They are of medium or 
slightly under size, the complexion from olive to 
brown. The hair is black, straight and lank, and the 
beard is scanty. The eyes are black, often slightly 

* " On ne peut guere mettre en doute que les vrais Malais appar- 
tiennent an groupe des races a petite taille et a tete plus ou moins 
ronde de I'Asie." Hovelacque et Herve, Precis d^ AntJiropologiey 
p. 470. 

t See Friedrich Mliller, Grtmdriss ker Sprachwissenschaft^ Bd. II., 
Ab. IT., s. 1-3. 



THE TRUE MALAY. 233 

oblique, the nose straight and rather prominent, the 
mouth large, and the chin well developed. The skull 
is short (brachy cephalic), and the muscular force less 
than the European average. 

This type is found among the Malayans of Malacca 
and Sumatra, the Javanese, the Madurese and Tagalas. 
It has changed slightly by foreign intermixture among 
the Battaks of Sumatra, the Dayaks of Borneo, the 
Alfures and the Bugis. But the supposition that these 
are so remote that they cannot properly be classed 
with the Malays is an exaggeration of some recent 
ethnographers, and is not approved by the best author- 
ities. "^ The chief differences are that the Battak type 
is larger and stronger than the average Malay, the 
skull is more oval, the hair finer in texture and lighter 
in color. 

In character the Malays are energetic, quick of per- 
ception, genial in demeanor, but unscrupulous, cruel 
and revengeful. Veracity is unknown, and the love of 
gain is far stronger than any other passion or affection. 
This thirst for gold made the Malay the daring navi- 
gator he early became. As merchant, pirate or ex- 
plorer, and generally as all three in one, he pushed his 
crafts far and wide over the tropical seas through 
twelve thousand miles of extent. 

On the extreme west he reached and colonized Mad- 
agascar. The Hovas there, undoubtedly of Malay 
blood, number about 800,000 in a population of five 

* Compare Fr. Ratzel, Volkerkunde^ Bd. II., s. 371. Dr. Hamy 
and Mr. Keane have questioned the relationship of the Battaks. 



234 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

and a half millions, the remainder being Negroids of 
various degrees of fusion. In spite of this dispropor- 
tion, the Hovas are the recognized masters of the 
island. Their language stands in closest relation to 
that of the Battaks of Sumatra. In physical appear- 
ance they have a striking likeness to the Polynesians, 
so close, indeed, that the one may readily be mistaken 
for the other. "^ 

On the great islands near the Malaccan peninsula 
there are tribes in different stages of culture. Those 
on the highest plane are the Javanese, whose ancient 
language, the Kavi, is preserved in their sacred books. 
The Battaks of Northern Sumatra are an agricultural 
people, who have not accepted Islam, and belong to 
the old stock of the Asian immigrants. They are still 
to some extent cannibals, a convict condemned to 
death being eaten by the community. The Dayaks 
of Borneo are not less truculent, being cannibals and 
famous ^' head hunters '' — that is, their highest trophy 
of war and proof of manhood is to bring home the head 
of a slain enemy. Some of them are agriculturists, 
others sea robbers. Their dwellings are of the com- 
munal character, and their religion an idolatry, the 
figures of the gods being carved in wood. 

The Macassars of the Celebes and the Tagalas of 
the Philippines are Malays of milder habits, and 
possess commercial importance and literary culture. 
In these islanders there is a mixed class called Alfures, 

* Dr. O. Finsch, Anthropologische Ergebitisse eijter Reise in der 
Siidsee^ s. i. (Berlin, 1884.) 



THE POLYNESIANS. 235 

who have attracted some attention as differing from 
the prevalent type, but they are of no ethnographic 
importance. 

The Malays probably established various colonies 
in Southern India. The natives at Travancore and the 
Sinhalese of Ceylon bear a strongly Malayan aspect. 
But the latter speak a dialect largely Aryac, and the 
Veddahs in the interior of the island have a much 
lower cephalic index than the Malay (about ^2), and 
their language is derived about one-half from Aryac 
and the rest from Dravidian (Tamil) sources."^ 

2. The Eastern or Polynesian Grovip. 

Some ethnographers would make the Polynesians 
and Micronesians a different race from the Malays ; 
but the farthest that one can go in this direction is to 
admit that they reveal some strain of another blood. 
This is evident in their physical appearance. They 
are uncommonly tall, symmetrical and handsome, a 
stature over six feet not being unusual among them. 
Their features are regular, their color a light brown. 
Their hair is black, smooth and glossy, sometimes 
with a curl or crisp in it, which betrays a touch of 
Papuan blood. All the Polynesian languages have 
some affinities to the Malayan, and the Polynesian 
traditions unanimously refer to the west for the home 
of their ancestors. We are able, indeed, by carefully 

* A Thompson, " On the Osteology of the Veddahs," in Jourfial 
of the Anthropological Institute^ 1889. " Veddah " in Sanscrit means 
" hunter." 



236 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

analyzing these traditions, to trace with considerable 
accuracy both the route they followed to the Oceanic 
isles and the respective dates when they settled them. 

Thus, the first station of their ancestors on leaving 
the western group, was the small island of Buru or 
Boru, between Celebes and New Guinea. Here they 
encountered the Papuas, some of whom still dwell in 
the interior, while the coast people are fair.'*'' Leaving 
Boru, they passed to the north of New Guinea, col- 
onizing the Caroline and Solomon Islands, but the 
vanguard pressing forward to take possession of Savai 
in the Samoan group and Tonga to its south. These 
two islands formed a second centre of distribution 
over the western Pacific. The Maoris of New Zea- 
land moved from Tonga — '' holy Tonga '' as they call 
it in their songs — about six hundred years ago. The 
Society islanders migrated from Savai, and they in 
turn sent forth the population of the Marquesas, the 
Sandwich Islands and Easter Island. 

The separation of the Polynesians from the western 
Malays must have taken place about the beginning of 
our era. This length of time permits the best adjust- 
ment of their several traditions, and is not so long as to 
render it difficult to explain the similarity of their dia- 
lects and usages. f 

* On the inhabitants of Boru, see G. W. Ear], Native races of the 
Indian Archipelago^ p. 185. 

t Other Hypotheses about the Polynesians are that they are an 
autochthonous race developed in New Zealand (Lesson et Martinet, 
Les Polynesiens, Paris, 1884); that they came from America ; that 
they are of Aryac descent (Fornander). 



PACIFIC ISLANDERS. 237 

The disposition of the Polynesian is an improvement 
on that of the Malay. He is more to be trusted, and 
is more affable. In culture he is backward. Pottery 
is scarcely known, agriculture is not carried on, canni- 
balism was nigh universal, polygamy was prevalent, 
and the relation of the sexes was exceedingly loose, 
especially among the unmarried. The islanders, as 
may be expected, are singularly skilful navigators 
and build excellent canoes. They do not hesitate to 
undertake voyages of five or six hundred miles, and 
are such excellent swimmers that if the boat capsizes 
they are in no danger of drowning. Their weapons 
were the lance, the sling and club, but they were not 
acquainted with the bow and arrow. 

Their religion, until the introduction of Christian- 
ity, was a frank polytheism. The deeds of the gods 
are related in long chants, which also contain many 
historic references."^ The word '' taboo " comes from 
Polynesia, and means ^^ sacred,'' ^' holy." All objects 
which the priests declared '' taboo " were considered 
to be consecrated to the supernatural powers, and to 
touch them was to incur sure death. They were ac- 
customed to set apart enclosures which were '' taboo," 
and served as temples, and the images of the gods, in 
wood or stone, rudelv carved, were there erected. 

The migrations of the Polynesians have been closely studied by 
Horatio Hale, Ethnography and Philology of the U. S. Exploring 
isjt:/^^2V/(?;/, pp. 116-196 (1847). Many later writers have pursued 
the subject. 

* The sacred legends and rites of the Polvnesians have been col- 
lected by Bastian, Inselgrnppen in Occanicn (Berlin, 1883), and other 
writers. 



^38 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

Although their houses were generally of brush and 
leaves, on several of the islands they constructed stone 
edifices. Such are found upon the Caroline islands, on 
sacred Tonga, on Pitcairn, and on Easter island, the last 
mentioned have excited particular attention, and have 
given rise to various foolish theories about a previous 
race of high culture, and about relationship to the civi- 
lized American nations of Peru and Central Am.erica. 
It is enough to say that nothing on Easter island is 
peculiar to its culture. There are stone platforms 
with rude stone images on them thirty or forty feet 
high ; there are the foundations of stone houses ; there 
are remains of a primitive ideographic writing. All 
these occur also on the other islands I have named, 
and the natives of Rapa-nui, as the island is called by 
the Tahitians, have nothing in their language or arts 
to distinguish them from other Polynesians. The pre- 
historic colossal structures on Ponape, Lalla and 
others of the Caroline group, are of basalt, and testify 
to a creditable ambition and skill on the part of the 
builders ; but careful investigations prove that they 
are '' without any doubt '' to be attributed to the an- 
cestors of the present inhabitants.* 

III. The Australic Stock. 

Under the heading of the Australic branch, I would 
class together the primitive inhabitants of the peninsula 
of Hindostan and of the semi-continent of Australia. 

* Dr. O. Finsch, Ajtthropologische Ergebitisse einer Reise in der 
Sudsee^ s. 19. 



AUSTRALIANS AND DRAVIDIANS. 239 

The collocation may seem hazardous, but it has its 
reasons. The physical traits of the two are not re- 
mote. In both the hair is black and curly, showing 
Negritic blood, the skull is medium or long, the lips 
are full, the nose not prominent, the color brown, and 
there is a beard. The relationship of the Australians 
to some of the hill tribes of central India has been re- 
ferred to as possible by the naturalist Wallace, and 
the linguist Caldwell finds Australian analogies in the 
Dravidian tongues, and points out that both are of the 
agglutinative type, and with family resemblances.''' 
The suggestion seems close at hand that the Austral- 
ian is a compound of the Negritic stock of Australasia 
with the Malay, the Dravidian perhaps with the Ma- 
lay, and also with some other Asian people. f The Eng- 
lish ethnologist, C. Staniland Wake, has advanced an 
almost equivalent theory to the effect that a straight- 
haired stock combined with the Australasian Negrito 
to form the Australians, but this straight-haired people 
he would attach to the " Caucasian "- (Eurafrican) 
race, for which there is little or no evidence.^ 

* De Quatrefages found the Australian sub-type of skull reappear- 
ing among the Dra vidians, and he goes so far as to add, " The affinity 
of the Australian and Dravidian languages is now universally ad- 
mitted." hist. Gen, des Races Huniaines^ p. 333. He quotes the 
authority of Maury ; but P'r. Miiller thinks the analogies " too weak " 
to be convincing. [Grtindriss der Sprachwzssensckaft Bd. II., s. 

95-98.) 

t Dr. Friedrich Ratzel acknowledges the probable inroads of 
Malays in southern India, but condemns classing the Dravidas with 
the Australians. Volkerktmde, Bd. III., s. 411 (Leipzig, 1888). 

X Wake, " The Papuans and Polynesians," m/oicr. of the Anthrop, 
Instititte, Nov., 1882. 



240 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

J. The Australian Group 

Occupies the whole semi-continent of AustraHa and 
the island of Tasmania south of it. The last of the 
Tasmanians perished some years ago, and Carl Lum-, 
holtz, one of the most recent of Australian explorers, 
calculates the survivors of the native inhabitants of 
that continent at not over 30,000 individuals of pure 
blood. 

Their appearance differs considerably, although it is 
generally conceded that they speak related idioms, and 
originally came from one lineage and language. The 
Tasmanians had quite frizzly or woolly hair, and ac- 
cording to reliable observers correspond closely in 
habits and appearance to the Papuas."^' Among the 
Australians of the north and northeast coast this re- 
semblance is still accentuated, and no wonder, when 
the islands in Torres straits, one in sight of the other, 
form natural stepping stones from New Guinea to 
Australia. On the west coast the hair is straighter, 
and the signs of Malay blood are obvious. The color 
varies from dark to light brown, and the beard is gen- 
erally full, the body being also well supplied with 
hair.f 

"^ This is the positive statement of Geo. W. Earl, who had seen Tas- 
manians. {Native Races of the Indian Archipelago^ p. 1 88. London, 
1853.) It is contradicted by Dr. Hamy, in the Crania Ethnica^ for 
no other reason, apparently, than that it does not fit his theories. 

t " The cast of the face is between the African and Malay types." 
H. Hale, Ethnography and Philology of the U. S. Exploring Expe- 
dition^ p. 107. Mr. Hale describes their hair as " long, fine and wavy, 
like that of Europeans," the color usually a dark brown. 



AUSTRALIAN CULTURE. 24I . 

The culture status of the AustraHans is generally 
put at the very lowest. Their roving tribes are with- 
out government, they do not till the ground, they go 
naked, and do not know the bow and arrow. Their 
weapons are the spear and the boomerang, a crooked 
club which they throw at the object. The story that 
it returns to the thrower is only true of some used in 
sport (Lumholtz). Marriage among them is by rob- 
bery or purchase, and the women are treated with de- 
liberate cruelty. Cannibalism in its most revolting 
form is usual, and the sick are deserted. Their relig- 
ion is a low fetichism, and they have no idols nor 
forms of worship. Certain rites, as fasting, sacrific- 
ing, and solemn dancing, clearly have reference to the 
supposed supernatural powers. In some parts, however, 
they draw figures of animals with charcoal on the 
sides of caves, and manufacture rude stone carvings.* 
They chip flakes into spear-points, and are skilful in 
making fire from friction, in catching animals and 
other simple arts. Their songs are numerous, and are 
chanted in correct time. 

The corroborees, or dances, constitute their principal 
religious and social festivals. These are usually cele- 
brated at night, by the light of great fires, and accom- 
panied by a horrible clangor, which passes for music, 
produced from drums, flutes, and a sort of tambou- 
rine. The chants relate to adventures in war and 



* Edwin N. Curr, The Atcstralian Race, VoL III., p. 675 (Lon- 
don, 1887). 



242 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

love, in boasting recitals, and in descriptions of an- 
cestral power. The initiation of the young of both 
sexes into the duties of adult life is always accom- 
panied with some solemnities, such as fasting, incising 
the flesh in lines so as to leave prominent scars, cutting 
the hair, breaking one or more teeth, and with local 
mutilations of a painful and shocking character. 

As usual among the primitive peoples, sickness and 
death are regarded, not as natural events, but as the 
maleficent action of evil spirits or living enemies. 
When ill, therefore, the services of the priest or magi- 
cian is called in to counteract the sorcery and to 
name the adversary who sets it on foot. These adepts 
employ the same Shamanistic practices, rubbing, blow- 
ing, sucking, howling, which are popular with them 
everywhere, and if these fail, at least at death they can 
suggest who the hidden enemy has been, and thus 
furnish a pretext for the avenger of blood to start 
forth on his murderous mission. 

In some parts the dead are burned ; in others, the 
flesh is scraped from the bones, or the body is exposed 
until they are cleaned by the ants and other animals, 
and then they are carefully collected and placed in an 
ossuary ; or again, the body is buried in the hut where 
the death took place, this is torn down and thrown on 
the grave, and the place is deserted. The spirits of 
the dead are supposed to haunt the place where the 
body is left, and as a rule to exercise an evil influence 
on the living. Food is occasionally placed on the 
grave, and some ceremonies of mourning are repeated 



MESSAGE STICKS. 243 

for eleven months ; usually, the survivors refrain from 
repeating the name of the deceased, even if it is a 
word of common use."^' 

Rudimentary as was their culture, it is interesting 
to notice that they had developed the conception of 
writing. They were accustomed to send information, 
and even describe events, by incising peculiarly formed 
notches, lines and figures on pieces of wood, called 
" message sticks.'' These would be sent by runners 
for hundreds of miles, and could be read by the re- 
cipient through the conventional meanings assigned 
to the characters. f 

2, The Dravidian Group. 

I have already given you a description of the gen- 
eral appearance of the Dravidas or Dravidians. 
There is some physical resemblance among them all, 
but here the similarity ceases, as they vary greatly in 
culture and language. They are held to have been 
the pre-Aryac population of India, and one of their 
tribes, the Brahui, is found north of the mountains, 
in Beloochistan. When the Aryans entered India, 
about two thousand years before our era, they either 
subjugated, destroyed or drove to the south these 
earlier possessors of the soil. They either became the 
lowest caste in the Aryac states, the " sudras," or they 

* Elisee Reclus, " Contributions a la Sociologie des Australiens," 
in Revue d'' AntJiropologie, 1887. 

t For abundant authorities see A. Bastian, Iiiselgriippcn in Ocean- 
ien, ss. 121, 122 (Berlin, 1883). 



244 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

fled to the swamps and hills. Their total number at 
present is about 50,000,000. 

Linguistically they are divisible into two distinct 
groups, the Dravidas proper, and the Mundas. To 
the former belong the Tamuls, the Telugus, the Can- . 
arese, the M layalas, the Todas, the Khonds, and 
other tribes of lets importance. The skin of all these 
is brown, the hair curly, the head tending to dolicho- 
cephaly. The Todas of the Neilghery hills are re- 
garded as of unusually pure blood. They are tall, 
with full beards and prominent noses, the hair black 
and bushy. Undoubtedly many of the Dravidas par- 
take of Aryac blood through the long domination of 
that stock. 

Most of the Dravida nations are cultured, possess- 
ing a written language and a literature. They are 
pastoral and agricultural in habits, and usually the 
women are well treated, and enjoy a certain degree of 
freedom. Monogamy is the prevalent custom, but 
polyandry (see p. 53) is frequent, and infanticide, par- 
ticularly of female children, is looked upon with ap- 
proval. Their religion is a nature-worship of a low 
order, consisting principally of conjurations against 
evil spirits and divination by sorcerers. 

The Munda tribes include the Kohls, the Santals, 
the Bhillas and others, dwelling on the highlands of 
the interior, northwest of Calcutta. They are hunting 
and agricultural peoples, having a better reputation 
among the Europeans than their Hindoo neighbors. 
The physical type among them is variable, natives of 




Ethnic Chart of Hindostan. 



Opp. p. 244 



DRAVIDIAN TONGUES. 245 

the same village differing in color and hair, in- 
dicating frequent crossings with the Aryac and other 
foreign stock. 

The languages of the Dravidians, though of the 
type called agglutinative, have no demonstrative con- 
nection with those of the Sibiric (Altaic) stock, and 
the efforts to connect them historically are visionary. 
The original roots are monosyllabic, which are mod- 
ified by the addition of suffixes. These suffixes often 
show the same '' vocalic harmony '' to which I have 
referred in some of the Sibiric idioms (above, p. 212) ; 
but its action is reversed, as while in Turkish, for 
example, the vowel of the suffix alters the vowel of the 
root, in Telugu it is the latter which controls the 
former. 

Although all the Dravida tongues have borrowed 
more or less from the Sanscrit, it has been in words 
only, and their peculiar structure stands as ever wholly 
apart from all Aryac speech. There is something that 
looks like inflection in them, but the case-endings are 
merely particles referring to place, and not true gram- 
matical cases. They are still in that stage of growth 
where the distinction of verb and noun is ill-defined, 
and relative pronouns are absent. 

The literature which has been developed in these 
tongues is of respectable extent. That of the Tamils 
of southern Hindostan and northern Ceylon stands in 
the front rank. It is in both prose and poetry, special 
forms of expression being characteristic of the latter. 
Everywhere it reveals Aryac inspiration, and illustrates 



246 INSULAR AND LITTORAL PEOPLES. 

the general traits of the Dravidian intellect, ready 
facility in imitating and adapting the forms of a higher 
civilization, but limited originality and independence 
of thought. 



LECTURE IX. 



THE AMERICAN RACE. 
Contents. — Peopling of America. Divisions. 

I. The Arctic Group. Members. Location. Character. 2. The 
North Atlantic Group. Tinneh, Algonkins, Iroquois, Dakotas, 
Muskokis, Caddoes, Shoshonees, etc. 3. The North Pacific Group. 
Tlinkits, Haidahs, Californians, Pueblos. 4. The Mexican Group. 
The Aztecs or Nahuas. Other nations. 5. The Inter-Isthmian 
Group. The Mayas. Their culture. Other tribes. 6. The South 
Atlantic Group. The Caribs, the Arawaks, the Tupis. Other 
tribes. 7. The South Pacific Group. The Qquichuas or Peru- 
vians. Their culture. Other tribes. 

The American Race includes those tribes whom we 
famiharly call " Indians/' a designation, as you know, 
which perpetuates the error of Columbus, who thought 
the western land he discovered was a part of India. 

I shall not undertake to discuss those extensive 
questions, Who are the Indians? and. When was 
America peopled? and. By what route did the first in- 
habitants come here? These knotty points I treat in 
another course of lectures, where I marshal sufficient 
arguments, I think, to show satisfactorily that America 
was peopled during, if not before, the Great Ice Age ; 
that its first settlers probably came from Europe by 
way of a land connection which once existed over the 

(247) 



248 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

northern Atlantic, and that their long and isolated resi- 
dence in this continent has moulded them all into a 
singularly homogeneous race, which varies but slightly 
anywhere on the continent, and has maintained its 
type unimpaired for countless generations. Never at 
any time before Columbus was it influenced in blood, 
language or culture by any other race. 

So marked is the unity of its type, so alike the phys- 
ical and mental traits of its members from Arctic to 
Antarctic latitudes, that I cannot divide it any other 
way than geographically, as follows : 

1. Arctic Group. 

2. North Atlantic Group. 

3. North Pacific Group. 

4. Mexican Group. 

5. Inter-Isthmian Group. 

6. South Atlantic Group. 

7. South Pacific Group. 

All the higher civilizations are contained in the Pa- 
cific group, the Mexican really belonging to it by 
derivation and original location. Between the mem- 
bers of the Paci^ ^ and Atlantic groups there was very 
little communication at any period, the high Sierras 
walling them apart; but among the members of each 
Pacific and each Atlantic group, the intercourse was 
constant and extensive. The Nahuas, for instance, 
spread down the Pacific from Sonora to the straits of 
Panama ; the Inca power stretched along the coast for 
two thousand miles ; but neither of these reached into 
the Atlantic plains. So with the Atlantic groups ; the 



THE INNUIT. 249 

Guarani tongue can be traced from Buenos Ayres to 
the Amazon, the Algonkin from the Savannah River 
to Hudson Bay ; but neither crossed the mountains to 
the west. The groups therefore are cultural as well 
as geographical, and represent natural divisions of 
tribes as well as of regions. 

The northernmost of this division is 

I. The Arctic Group. 

This group comprises the Eskimo and Aleutian 
tribes. 

The more correct name for the former is that which 
they give themselves, Inmiit, '' men.'' They are essen- 
tially a maritime people, extending along the northern 
coasts of the continent from Icy Bay in Alaska on the 
west, almost to the Straits of Belle Isle on the Lab- 
rador side. Northward they reach into Greenland, 
where the Scandinavians found them about the year 
1000 A. D., although it is likely that these Greenland 
Eskimos had come from Labrador no long time be- 
fore."^ 

Throughout the whole of this extensive distribution, 
they present a most remarkable uniformity of appear- 
ance, languages, arts and customs. The unity of their 
tribes is everywhere manifest. 

The physical appearance of the Eskimos is charac- 
teristic. Their color is dark, hair black and coarse, 
stature medium, skull generally long (dolichocephalic, 

* Cf. A. T. Packard, " Notes on the Labrador Eskimos," im A7)teri' 
can Nahiralist^ 1885, p. 473. 



250 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

71—73). The beard is scant and the cheek bones 
high. 

They usually have a cheerful, lively disposition, and 
are much gl/en to stories, songs and laughter. Neither 
the long nights of the polar zone, nor the cruel cold 
of the winters, dampens their glee. Before their 
deterioration by contact with the whites, they were 
truthful and honest. Their intelligence in many di- 
rections is remarkable, and they invented and im- 
proved many mechanical devices in advance of any 
other tribes of the race. Thus, they alone on the 
American continent used lamps. They make them of 
stone, with a wick of dried moss. The sledge with its 
team of dogs is one of their devices ; and gloves, boots 
and divided clothing are articles of dress not found on 
the continent south of them. Their '' kayak,'' a light 
and strong boat of sealskins stretched over a frame of 
bones or wood, is the perfection of a sea-canoe. Their 
carvings in bone, wood or ivory, and their outline 
drawings, reveal no small degree of technical skill; 
and they independently discovered the principle of the 
arch and apply it to the construction of their domed 
snow-houses. The principal weapons among them 
are the bow and arrow and the lance. 

The Aleutians proper live on the central and eastern 
islands of the Archipelago named from them. Their 
language differs wholly from the Eskimo. At pres- 
ent they are largely civilized. 



THE ANTHAPASCAS. 2^1 

2, The North Atlantic Group, 

The spacious water-shed of the Atlantic stretches 
from the crests of the Rocky Mountains to the Eastern 
Ocean. Whether the streams debouch into Hudson 
Bay or the Gulf of Mexico, their waters find their way 
to the Atlantic. The most of this region was in the 
possession of a few linguistic stocks, whose members, 
generally at war with each other, roved widely over 
these lowlands. 

The northernmost of them was the Athapasca stock. 
Its members called themselves Tinneh, *^ people,'' and 
they are also known as Chepewyans, an Algonkin 
word meaning '' pointed skins,'' applied from the shape 
of the skin robe they wore, pointed in front and be- 
hind."^ 

Their country extended from Hudson Bay to the 
Cascade Range of the Rocky Mountains, and from the 
Arctic Ocean southward to a line drawn from the 
mouth of the Churchill river to the mouth of the 
Frazer river. The northern tribes extend westward 
nearly to the delta of the Yukon river, and reach the 
seacoast at the mouth of the Copper river. At some 
remote period, some of its bands forsook their in- 
hospitable abodes in the north, and following the east- 
ern flanks of the Cordillera, migrated far south into 
Mexico, where they form the Apaches and Navajos, 
and the Lipans near the mouth of the Rio del Norte. 

The general trend of the pre-historic migrations of 

* E. Petitot, Mo7tographie des Dene Dindjie^ p. 24 (Paris, 1876). 



252 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

the Tinneh, seems to have been from a centre west of 
Hudson Bay, whence they diverged north, west, and 
southwest. 

In physical features they are of average stature and 
superior muscular development. The color varies 
considerably, even 'n the same village, but tends to- 
ward a brown. The skull is long, the face broad, and 
the cheek-bones prominent.''' 

In point of culture the Tinneh stand low. The 
early missionaries who undertook the difficult task of 
bringing them into accord with Christian morals have 
left painful portraitures of the brutality of the lives of 
their flocks. The Apaches have for centuries been 
notorious for their savage dispositions and untamable 
ferocity. They are, however, skilful hunters, bold 
warriors, and of singular physical endurance. 

Immediately south of the Athabascans, throughout 
their whole extent, were the Algonkins. They ex- 
tended uninterruptedly from Cape Race, in Newfound- 
land, to the Rocky Mountains, on both banks of the 
St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. The Blackfeet 
were their westernmost tribe, and in Canada they em- 
braced the Crees, Montagnais, Micmacs, Ottawas, etc. 
In the area of the United States they were known in 
New England as the Abnakis, Passamaquoddies, 
Pequots, etc. ; on the Hudson, as Mohegans ; on the 
Delaware, as Lenape ; in Maryland, as Nanticokes ; in 
Virginia, as Powhatans ; while in the Ohio and Mis- 

* See F. Michel, £>ix huit a?ts chez les Sauvages (Paris, 1866), and 
Petitot, ubi supra. 



ALGONKIN TRIBES. 253 

sissippi valleys, the Miamis, Sacs and Foxes, Kicka- 
poos and Chippeways, were of this stock. Its most 
southern representatives were the Shawnees, who once 
lived on the Tennessee, and, perhaps, the Savannah 
river, and were closely related to the Mohegans of 
New York. 

Most of these tribes were agricultural, raising 
maize, beans, squash and tobacco ; they occupied fixed 
residences in towns most of the year; they were 
skilled in chipping and polishing stone, and they had 
a definite, even rigid, social organization. Their 
mythology was extensive, and its legends, as well as 
the history of their ancestors, were retained in mem- 
ory by a system of ideographic writing, of which a 
number of specimens have been preserved. Their in- 
tellectual capacities were strong, and the distinguished 
characters that arose among them- — King Philip, 
Tecumseh, Black Hawk, Pontiac, Tammany, Pow- 
hatan — displayed, in their dealings of war or peace 
with the Europeans, an ability, a bravery and a sense 
of right, on a par with the famed heroes of antiquity. 

The earliest traceable seat of this widely extended 
group was somewhere between the St. Lawrence 
River and Hudson Bay. To this region their tradi- 
tions point, and there the language is found in its 
purest and most archaic form. They apparently di- 
vided early into two branches, the one following the 
Atlantic coast southward, the other the St. Lawrence 
and the Great Lakes westward. Of those that re- 
mained, some occupied Newfoundland, others spread- 



254 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

over Labrador, where they were thrown into frequent 
contact with the Eskimos. 

Surrounded on all sides by the Algonkins, the 
Iroqitois first appear in history as occupying a portion 
of the area of New York State. To the west, in the 
adjoining part of Canada, were their kinsmen, the 
Eries and Hurons ; on the Susquehanna, in Pennsyl- 
vania, the Conestogas ; and in Virginia, the Tusca- 
roras. All were closely related, but in constant feud. 
Those in New York were united as the Five Nations, 
and as such, are prominent figures in the early annals 
of the English colony. The date of the formation of 
their celebrated league is reasonably placed in the 
fifteenth century. 

Another extensively despersed stock is that of the 
Dakotas. Their area reached from Lake Michigan 
to the Rocky Mountains, and from the Saskatchewan 
to the Arkansas rivers, covering most of the valley 
of the Missouri. A fragment of them, the Tuteloes, 
resided in Virginia, where they were associated with 
the Monacans, now extinct, but who were probably of 
the same stock. 

They are also called the Sioux. Their principal 
tribes are the Assiniboins, to the north; the Hidatsa 
or Crows, at the v/est; the Winnebagoes to the east; 
the Omahas, Mandans, Otoes, and Poncas, on the Mis- 
souri ; the Osages and Kansas to the south. 

The Chahta-Miiskoki stock occupied the area of 
what we call the Gulf States, from the Atlantic to the 
Mississippi River. They comprised the Creeks or 



THE MOUND BUILDERS. 255 

Muskokis, the Choctaws, Chickasaws, and later the 
Seminoles. The latter took possession of Florida early 
in the last century. Previously that peninsula had 
been inhabited by the Timucuas, a nation now wholly 
extinct, though its language is still preserved in the 
works of the Spanish missionaries. 

The Creeks and their neighbors were first visited by 
Fernando de Soto in 1540, on that famous expedition 
when he discovered the Mississippi. The narratives 
of his campaign represent them as cultivating exten- 
sive fields of corn, living in well fortified towns, their 
houses erected on artificial mounds, and the villages 
having defences of embankments of earth. These 
statements are verified by the existing remains, which 
compare favorably in size and construction with those 
left by the mysterious '' Mound Builders '' of the Ohio 
valley. In fact, the opinion is steadily gaining ground 
that probably the builders of the Ohio earthworks 
were the ancestors of the Creeks, Cherokees, and other 
southern tribes."^ 

Much of the area of eastern Texas, and the land 
north of it to the Platte River, were held by various 
tribes of the Caddoes. Fragments of them are found 
nearly as far north as the Canada line, and it is prob- 
able that their migration was from this higher latitude 
southerly, though their own legends referred to tlie 
east as their first home. They depended for subsist- 
ence chiefly on hunting and fishing, thus remaining in 

* See an article on " The Probable Nationality of the Mound Build^ 
ers," in my Essays of an Americafiist, p. 6"] (Philadelphia, 1890). 



256 ' THE AMERICAN RACE. 

a lower stage of progress than their neighbors in the 
Mississippi valley. 

Sometimes this is called the Pani family, from one 
of their members, the Pawnees, on the Platte River. 
Their most northerly tribe was the Arickarees, who 
reached to the middle Missouri, and in the south the 
Witchitas were the most prominent. 

The Kiozvays now live about the head-waters of the 
Nebraska or Platte River, along the northern line of 
Colorado. Formerly they roamed over the plains of 
Texas, but according to an ancient tradition, they 
came from some high northern latitude, and made use 
of sleds. "^ 

Omitting a number of small tribes, whose names 
would weary you, I shall mention in the Atlantic 
group the Shoshonee bands, called also Snake or Ute 
Indians. They extended from the coast of Texas in 
a northwesterly direction over New Mexico, Colorado, 
Arizona and Nevada, to the borders of California, and 
reached the Pacific near Santa Barbara. Many of 
them are a low grade of humanity, the lowest in skull- 
form, says Professor Virchow, of any he has ex- 
amined on the continent. The " Root-diggers '' are 
one of their tribes, living in the greatest squalor. Yet 
it would be a serious error to suppose they are not 
capable of better things. Many among them have 
shown decided intellectual powers. Sarah Winne- 
mucca, a full blood Pi-Ute, was an acceptable and 
fluent lecturer in the English language,t and their 

* Dr. Ten Kate, in J^emce d'Ethnographie, 1885, p. 122. 
t Life Among the PiUtes^ by Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins 
(Boston, 1883). 



PACIFIC COAST TRIBES. 257 

war chiefs have at times given our army officers no 
httle trouble by their skill and energy. 

The Comanches are the best known of the Shosho- 
nees, and present the finest types of the stock. They 
are of average stature, straight noses, features regular, 
and even handsome, and the expression manly. They 
are splendid horsemen and skilful hunters, but men 
never given to an agricultural life. 

?. The North Pacific Group. 

The narrow valleys of the Pacific slope are tra- 
versed by streams rich in fish,- whose wooded banks 
abounded in game. Shut ofif from one another by 
lofty ridges, they became the home of isolated tribes, 
who developed in course of time peculiarities of speech, 
culture and appearance. Hence it is that there is an 
extraordinary diversity of stocks along that coast, and 
few of them have any wide extent. 

In the extreme north the Tlinkit or Kolosch are in 
proximity to the Eskimos near Mount St. Elias. They 
are an ingenious and sedentary people, living in vil- 
lages of square wooden houses, many parts of which are 
elaborately carved into fantastic figures. Their canoes 
are dug out of tree trunks, and are both graceful in 
shape and remarkably seaworthy. With equal deft- 
ness they manufacture clothing from skin, ornaments 
from bone, ivorv, wood and stone, utensils from horn 
and stone, and baskets and mats from rushes."^ 

To the south of them are the Haidahs of Vancou- 

* Dr. A. Kraiise, Die Tlinkit hidianer (Jena. 1885). 
17 



258 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

ver's island, distantly related in language to the Tlink- 
it, and closely in the arts of life. Their elaborately 
carved pipes in black slate, and their intricate designs 
in wood, testify to their dexterity as artists. South of 
them are various stocks, the Tsimshian on the Nass and 
Skeena rivers, the Nootka on the sound of that name, 
the Salish, who occupy a large tract, and others. "'^ 

All the above are north of the line of the United 
States. Not far south of it are the Sahaptins, or Nez 
Perces, who are noteworthy for two traits, one their 
language, which is to some extent inflectional, with 
cases like the Latin, and the second, for their com- 
mercial abilities. They owned the divide between the 
headwaters of the Missouri and of the Columbia rivers, 
and from remote times carried the products of the 
Pacific slope — shells, beads, pipes, etc. — far down the 
Missouri, to barter them for articles from the Missis- 
sippi valley. 

The coast of California was thickly peopled by many 
tribes of no linguistic affinities, most of whom have 
now disappeared. They offer little of interest except 
to the specialist, and I shall omit their enumeration in 
order to devote more time to the Pueblo Indians and 
Cliff-dwellers of New Mexico, Colorado and Arizona. 

These include divers tribes, Moquis, Zunis, Aco- 
mas and others, not related in language, but upon the 
same plane of culture, and that one in many respects 
higher than any tribe I have yet named to you. They 

* The tribes of British Columbia have been especially studied by 
Dr. Franz Boas, who has published extensively upon them. 



THE AZTECS. 259 

constructed large buildings (pueblos) of stone and 
sun-dried brick, with doors and windows supported by 
beams of wood; they were not only tillers. of the soil, 
but devised extensive systems of irrigation, by which 
the water was conducted for miles to the fields; they 
were both skilful and tasteful in the manufacture of 
pottery and clothing; and as places of defence or 
retreat they erected stone towers and lodged well- 
squared stone dwehmgs on the ledges of the deep 
canons, known as '' cliff houses/' 

4. The Mexican Group, 

The nations of leading prominence in this group 
spoke the Aztec or Nahuatl tongue. On the arrival 
of Cortes, they controlled the territory from the Gulf 
to the Pacific, and their colonies and commerce ex- 
tended far north and south. They dwelt in populous 
cities built of brick and stone, were diligent cultivators 
of the soil, made use of a phonetic system of writing, 
and had an ample literattire preserved in books. 

The physical traits of the Aztecs were nowise pecu- 
liar. Their skulls were moderately Jong or medium, 
though a few are brachycephalic, the forehead narrow, 
the face broad. The hair is occasionally wavy, and 
they present more beard than most of the other In- 
dians. The color is from light to dark brown, the 
nose prominent, and the ears large. In stature they 
are medium or less, strongly built and muscular. 
Persons ill-made or deformed are rare, and among the 
young of both sexes graceful and symmetrical forms 
are not uncommon. 



26o THE AMERICAN RACE. 

The governments of the various nations were based 
on the system of clans, gentes or totems, which was 
common not only in America, but in most primitive 
communities. Each gens had a right of representa- 
tion, and the land belonged to its members, not as 
individuals, but as parts of the clan. The highest 
officer of the State was in early times elected by the 
chiefs of the gentes, but later the office became heredi- 
tary. 

Of all the arts, that of architecture was most de- 
veloped. The pyramid of Cholula compares in magni- 
tude with the most stupendous results of human labor. 
It has four terraces, and its base is a square, 1500 feet 
on each side. Similar structures are found at Pa- 
pantla, Teotihuacan, and other localities. They are 
built of earth, stone, and baked brick, and could only 
have been completed by the united and directed labor 
of large bodies of workmen. The cities of ancient 
Mexico were many in number, and contained thou- 
sands of houses. Tenochtitlan was surrounded by 
walls of stone, and its population must have been at 
least sixty thousand souls. 

Of their cultivated plants the most important were 
maize, cotton, beans, cacao and tobacco. An intoxi- 
cating beverap-e, called octli, was prepared from the 
fermented juice of the agave, but its use was limited 
by stringent regulations, and repeated drunkenness 
was punished with death. 

The Aztecs were in the '' bronze age '' of industrial 
development. Various tools, as hoes, chisels and 



AZTEC RELIGION. 261 

scrapers, ornaments, as beads and bells, formed of an 
alloy of tin and copper, and copper plates of a crescentic 
shape were used as a circulating medium in some dis- 
tricts. In welding and hammering gold and silver 
they were the technical equals of the goldsmiths of 
Europe of their day. Most of their cutting instru- 
ments, however, were of stone. 

They were lovers of brilliant colors, and decorated 
their costumes and buildings with dyed stuffs, bright 
flowers, and the rich plumage of tropical birds. Such 
feathers were also woven into mantles and head- 
dresses of intricate designs and elaborate workman- 
ship, an art now lost. Their dyes were strong and 
permanent, some of them remaining quite vivid after 
four centuries of exposure to the light. 

In order to obtain the materials used in their arts 
and to exchange their completed products, they car- 
ried on an active commerce, both domestic and foreign. 
All the cities had market days, when the neighboring 
country people would flock in great numbers to town, 
and the journeys of their merchants extended far to- 
ward the Isthmus of Panama. 

The national religion was a polytheism built up on 
a totemic worship ; that is, it was originally a nature 
worship grafted upon the superstitious devotion paid 
to the presiding genius of the gens. Huitzilopochtli 
was the chief divinity of the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan, 
Quetzalcoatl was especially adored at Cholula, and the 
two Tezcatlipocas, the one dark and one white, were 
other prominent mythical figures. According to the 



2()2 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

inyth these four were brothers, but engaged in a series 
of contentions among themselves, which repeatedly 
wTecked the world. "^ 

The Nahuas were by no means the only nation who 
had made decided progress in culture. In Michoa- 
can, to the northwest of the valley of Mexico, dwelt 
the Tarascos. They spoke a totally different tongiie, 
but according to Aztec legend had accompanied the 
Nahua from a northern region into their Mexican 
homes. Physically they are described as a taller and 
handsomer folk than the Nahuas, with a language 
singularly vocalic and musical. Bold in war, they 
were never subject to the Aztecs, and appear to have 
been their equals in the arts. They constructed houses 
of stone, and made use of a hieroglyphic writing to pre- 
serve the records of their ancestors.f 

The Mixtecs and Zapotecs were neighboring tribes, 
who lived on and near the Pacific above the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec. By tradition both nations came to- 
gether from the north ; '' mixtecari '' in Nahuatl means 
" people from the cloudy land.'' T?o them are at- 
tributed the remarkable edifices' of Mitla, stone-built 
structures, whose walls are elaborately ornamented 
with rude stone mosaics ir meander designs or 
" grecques.'' The roofs seem to have been supported 

* See D. G. Brinton, A7nerican Hero Myths, Chap. Ill (Philadel- 
phia, 1882). 

t The Tarascos have been studied with much care by Dr. Nicolas 
Leon, of Michoacan, who has published a number of articles on their 
antiquities and languages. 



MAYA PEOPLES. 263 

by solid pillars of granite, some of which are still in 
place. Of the age or purposes of these buildings we 
know nothing, as .they were deserted and in ruins 
when first visited by the Spaniards. 

There are many smaller tribes in Mexico of inde- 
pendent stocks, but a catalogue of their names would 
be of little use. The most widely distributed are the 
Otomis. They are of email stature, dolichocephalic, 
and averse to civilization. According to tradition 
they are the oldest occupants of the land, possessing 
it before the arrival of the Nahuas. Their language 
in singularly difficult, nasal and primitive. In form it 
is almost monosyllabic, with a tendency to isolation* 
This has led some writers to believe it akin to the 
Chinese, for which there is not the slightest ground. 

5. The Inter-Isthmian Group. 

Between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and that of 
Panama the continent narrows to a point, and the 
pressure of the population advancing from both direc- 
tions forced a large number of diverse nationalities 
into a limited area. Only one of these could lay claim 
to a respectable civilization, most of the others living 
in primitive savagery. 

This people, the Mayas, occupied the whole of the 
peninsula of Yucatan, and the territory south of it to 
the Pacific Ocean. It was divided into a number of 
independent tribes, the principal of which were the 
Quiches and Cakchiquels, in the present State of Gua- 
temala. In all there were about eighteen dialects of 



264 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

the tongue, each of which can easily be recognized 
as a member of the stock. 

There can be httle doubt that the common ancestors 
of these tribes moved down from the north, following 
the shore of the Gulf of Mexico. This is the state- 
ment of their most ancient traditions, and it is sup- 
ported by the presence of one of their tribes, the 
Huastecas, on the shore of the Gulf, near Tampico. 
It has been calculated that their entrance into Yucatan 
was about the beginning of the Christian era. 

Physically the Maya peoples are of medium height, 
dark in hue, the skull usually long (dolichocephalic), 
the nose prominent, and the muscular force superior. 
The artist Waldeck compares their features to those 
of the Arabs. 

Their mental aptitudes are reflected in the culture 
they developed under circumstances not the most 
favorable. As architects they erected the most re- 
markable monuments on the continent. The elabo- 
rate decorations in stone, the bold carving, the free 
employment of the pointed arch, and the size of the 
edifices in the ancient cities of Palenque, Copan, 
Uxmal, Chichen Itza, and others, place them in the 
front rank among the wondrous ruins of the ancient 
world. 

They were a decidedly agricultural people, cultivat- 
ing maize, cotton, tobacco, peppers, beans, and cacao. 
The land was portioned out with care, each house- 
holder being granted an area in proportion to the size 
of his family. The cotton was woven into cloth, skil- 



ANCIENT RECORDS. 265 

fully dyed, and cut into graceful garments. The dyes 
were vegetable substances, collected from the native 
forests. What is not elsewhere paralleled in America, 
they carried on an extensive apiculture, domesticating 
the wild bee in wooden hives, and obtaining from its 
stores both wax and honey. 

Their weapons and utensils were mostly of stone. 
There is no evidence that the Maya tribes had the 
metallurgical skih of the Nahuas. Obsidian, jade, 
agate, and chert were the materials from which they 
made their tools and weapons. 

In war and the chase they were expert with the 
bow, the long lance, and the blow-pipe or sarbacane, 
a device recurring in both North and South America, 
as well as familiar to the Malays. The war-club, the 
sling and the tomahawk or hand-axe were also known 
to them. 

Small quantities of gold, silver and copper were 
found among them, but not in objects of utility. They 
were prized as materials for ornaments, and were em- 
ployed for decorative purposes. 

The art of writing was familiar to most of the 
Maya tribes, and especially to those in Yucatan. The 
Spanish authors assert that the Quiches in Guatemala 
had written annals extending eight hundred years be- 
fore the conquest, or to 750 A. D., and the chronicles 
of the Mayas which have been preserved, refer to a 
still more remote past, possibly to about 300 A. D. 
The script was quite dissimilar in appearance from the 
Mexican. 



266 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

Adjoining or near the numerous branches of the 
Maya peoples, there dwelt several outliving colonies 
of Nahuas in the Isthmian region, who have left there 
interesting relics of their culture. The Pipiles near 
the Pacific coast were the authors of a series of excel- 
lent bas-reliefs carved on slabs of stone, which have 
recently come into the possession of the Berlin mu- 
seum.'^' The Nicaraos, between the Pacific Ocean and 
Lake Nicaragua, and on the islands in this lake, were 
the sculptors of the strange figures in stone pictured 
by Squier in his travels, and some of which are now 
in the Smithsonian museum ; while the Alaguilacs in 
Western Guatemala have left ruins which have not yet 
been explored. f All these tribes were Nahuas of pure 
blood. 

On the shores of Lake Managua, to the east and 
west, were the Mangues, a people of some cultivation, 
acquainted with a form of hieroglyphic or picture 
writing, very skilful in pottery, and agricultural in 
habits. J It has been ascertained that they are a branch 
of the Chapanecs, who dwelt in the province of 
Chiapas, Mexico. 

The other tribes around Lake Nicaragua were wild. 



* S. Habel, The Satlphires of Santa L^icia Costi7?ialJinapa 
(Washington, 1878). Bastian has also written a good account of 
them (Berlin, 1882). 

t D. G. Brinton, " On the Alaguilac Language of Guatemala," in 
Proceedings of the American Philosoph. Soc, 1887. 

t D. G. Brinton, The Gilegiience^ a comedy ballet in the Dialect of 
Nicarag7m. Introduction, p. viii. (Philadelphia, 1883). 



CHIRIQUA GOLD WORK. 2^^ 

The Woolwas on the north, and the Huatusos along 
the Rio Frio to the east, depended on hunting and 
fishing for a HveHhood. So also did most of the tribes 
of Honduras, Vera Paz and the Isthmus. The only 
nation which distinguished itself in the arts were the 
Cuevas, in and around Chiriqui Bay. They were 
adroit in the treatment of gold. The early writers 
describe them as prominent in general culture and 
certain technical arts. To them we attribute the gold 
figures disinterred from the mounds of Chiriqui and 
its neighborhood. They are manufactured by two 
methods, the one by soldering gold wires drawn out 
into the finest thread upon thin hammered plates of 
the same metal, the wire forming the design ; the other 
by casting hollow figures.'*^ The skill displayed often 
excites the astonishment of the jewellers of our own 
day. 

6. The South Atlantic Group. 

The interminable forests of Brazil and the endless 
plains of the Pampas were at the discovery thickly 
peopled by bands of roving nations, dependent chiefly 
on the products of woods and streams for their sup- 
port. None of them had sedentary dwellings, none 
knew the art of building with brick or stone, and none 
laid much stress on agriculture. Some of them had, 
however, considerable technical skill in various direc- 
tions, and few if any of them could be assigned to as 
low a status as the Australians, for example. 

* C. H, Berendt, Bull, of the Amer. Geog. Society, 1876, p. 11. 



268 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

The ruling people on the northern coast and the 
Lesser Antilles at that time were the Caribs. They 
possessed much of the coast line from the Isthmus 
of Panama to the mouth of the Orinoco, and many of 
the smaller southern islands of the West Indian archi- 
pelago. They had established a colony on Hayti, but 
probably not on Cuba, and their expeditions, so far as 
we know, never reached Florida. According to their 
own statements, all the island Caribs came from the 
mainland at no long period before the Discovery. Re- 
cent researches have shown that the original home of 
the stock was south of the Amazon, and probably in 
the highlands at the head of the Tapajoz River. A 
tribe, the Bakairi, is still resident there, whose lan- 
guage is a pure and archaic form of the Carib tongue.''' 

They were a finely formed set of men, the skull long 
but variable, their color dark, large narrow nose, prom- 
inent cheek bones, wide mouth, and thin lips. 

Their language is rich in vowels and pleasant to the 
ear. In some districts that spoken by the women va- 
ried in some degree from that in use among the men. 
This is not without 'other examples among the Ameri- 
can race, and appears to have arisen partly from the 
custom of capturing women from other tribes for 
wives, partly from a tendency to easy dialectic varia- 
tion in the languages themselves. 

The Arazi'aks occupied on the continent the area of 
the modern Guiana, between the Corentvn and the 
Pomeroon rivers, and at one time all the West Indian 
* Karl von der Steinen, Dtirch Central Brasilien, s. 308. 



BRAZILIAN TRIBES. 269 

Islands. From some of them they were early driven 
by the Caribs, and within forty years of the date of 
Columbus' first voyage the Spanish had exterminated 
nearly all on the islands. Their course of migration 
had been from the interior of Brazil northward ; their 
distant relations are still to be found between the 
headwaters of the Paraguay and Schingu rivers. 

The extensive slope which is watered by the Ama- 
zon and its tributaries is peopled by numerous tribes 
whose affinities are obscure. Those on the plains near 
the coast belonged to the Ttipi-Guarani stock. This 
extended along the Atlantic from Rio de la Plata 
to the Amazon, embracing in the north the Tupis or 
Tupinambas, and on the south the Guaranis. Scat- 
tered tribes of the stock extended westward to the 
Paraguay and Madeira rivers, reaching to the foot 
hills of Andes. Though positive data are lacking 
about their early migrations, the evidence at hand 
tends to show that these were from south to north, and 
that the Tupis displaced an earlier people of a dififerent 
physical type and a lower grade of culture. 

This is the result derived both from a comparison of 
existing dialects and from explorations in the artificial 
shell-heaps, or sambaquis, which are found along the 
coast. Many of them are of great size and very an- 
cient. They contain skulls of an inferior type, with 
low foreheads, prominent and strong jaws, and short 
skulls (brachycephalic), while the Tupi skull is more 
fully developed and long (dolichocephalic). Similar 
shell-heaps, proving an equally rude people, are found 



270 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

along the coast of Guinea, and both among the Ara- 
waks of that locaHty, and still more among the Goa- 
jiros of the peninsula of that name on the coast of 
Venezuela, who are distantly related to the Arawaks, 
do we find the brachycephalic skull and strong jaws of 
the builders of the " sambaquis/' We may suppose, 
therefore, that the Tupis drove these earlier residents 
to the shores of the northern ocean.* 

In frequent contiguity with the Tupis was another 
stock, also widely dispersed through Brazil, called the 
Tapuyas, of whom the Botocudos in eastern Brazil are 
the most prominent tribe. To them also belong the 
Ges nations, south of the lower Amazon, and others. 
They are on a low grade of culture, going quite naked, 
not cultivating the soil, ignorant of pottery, and with 
poorly made canoes. They are dolichocephalic, and 
must have inhabited the country for a long time, as the 
skulls found in the caves at Lagoa Santa, in connec- 
tion with the bones of extinct animals, are identical in 
form with those of the Botocudos, and probably be- 
longed to their ancestors. 

West of the Paraguay River is an extensive plain 
called El Gran Chaco, beginning at the eighteenth de- 
gree of south latitude, and continuing to the Pampas 
of Buenos Ayres. This region was peopled by nu- 

* On this complex question compare Vei'handlungeit der Berliner 
Anthrop. GeselL, 1886, s. 703 ; 1887, s. 532, and elsewhere; Karl von 
den Steinen, Durch Central Brasilieii^ s. 295, and the work of Von 
Martins, Ziir Ethnograpkie Amerika's zumal Brasiliens^ Vol. I. 
(Leipzig, 1867). 



SOOTH AMERICAN TRIBES. 2^1 

merous wandering tribes, the Abipones, the Guaycu- 
rus, the Lules, and scores of others. They were in 
nowise related to the Guaranis, having short skulls, 
different linguistic stocks, and an inferior grade of 
culture. As they were warlike, and in constant strife 
with the whites, as well as among themselves, they 
have now nearly disappeared. 

The tribes of the Pampas were on a similar plane of 
development, and have also given way before the 
march of th^ white race. 

In the extreme south of the continent are the Pata- 
gonians and Fuegians. The former are sometimes 
called Tehuelches, or Southerners. They are a no- 
madic and hunting people, dark olive-brown in color, 
tall in stature and robust. 

The Fuegians are generally quoted as among the 
most miserable of savages. Though exposed to a 
damp and cold climate and always insufficiently nour- 
ished, they wear scarcely any clothing, and are content 
with wretched huts of branches and weeds. They 
have long skulls (about 75), long, narrow eyes, well- 
shaped noses, and generally are good specimens of 
one of the American types. Their language is emi- 
nently polysynthetic and rich in terms to express the 
objects and incidents of their daily life. 

7. The South Pacific Group. 

The principal nations in the South Pacific group 
are the Chibchas and the Oquichuas. 

The former, called also Muyscas, resided near the 



2.'J2 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

Magdalena River, near the present city of Bogota. 
They were sedentary, agricultural, and skilful in a 
number of arts. Their agriculture extended to maize, 
potatoes, cotton, yucca and other vegetables, and their 
fields were irrigated by canals. As potters and gold- 
smiths they ranked among the finest on the continent, 
and both for symmetry of form and richness of deco- 
ration some of the vases from their district cannot be 
surpassed from American products. 

The most powerful and cultivated of the South 
American nations were the Qquichuas of Peru. Orig- 
inally they were a small tribe near Lake Titicaca, 
where they dwelt in close relations to the Aymaras. 
About looo A. D., their chief, Manco Capac, con- 
quered the valleys to the north and founded the city 
of Cuzco. His successors added to the territory of 
the state until it extended from a few degrees north of 
the equator to about 20° south latitude, or a distance 
along the coast of over 1500 miles. In width it 
varied from 200 to 400 miles. Of course it embraced 
a variety of distinct stocks, so that it is impossible to 
speak of any '' Peruvian '' type of skull or features, 
the less so as it was the policy of the Incas, as the 
rulers were called, to remove conquered tribes to dis- 
tant parts of the realm. 

The social organization of Peru rested upon the 
political union of clans or gentes, as it did in most other 
American nations. The ruler of the realm acted in 
accordance with the advice of the council elected by 
the gentes, but also exercised at times an autocratic 



PERUVIAN AGRICULTURE. 273 

power, and it would be an error to consider him not 
more independent than the war-chief of one of the 
hunting tribes. The office was hereditary in the 
female line, provided a satisfactory candidate ap- 
peared ; otherwise it was elective."^ 

No American nation surpassed the Peruvians in 
agricultural arts. Maize, cotton, coca, potatoes, and 
tobacco were the principal crops. As the arable land 
in the narrow vales of their country was limited, they 
increased its extent by constructing terraces along the 
mountain sides, and to guard against the aridity, nu- 
merous dams were built, from which canals carried the 
water for miles to the various fields. Fertilizers were 
dug into the soil, and a rotation of crops observed to 
prevent its exhaustion. The domestication of animals 
had advanced further in Peru than elsewhere on the 
continent. Besides the dog, and a fowl like a goose, 
they had large herds of lamas, an animal they used 
for food and also for carrying burdens, though its 
chief value was its wool. This was spun and woven 
into articles of clothing, mats, etc. Quantities of cloth 
from this substance and from cotton are exhumed 
from the ancient tombs. The specimens are often in 
good preservation, showing geometrical designs 
worked with symmetry, and dyed of various bright 
colors. 

In the mountain regions the houses were generally 

* The most careful analysis of the Peruvian government is given 
by Dr. Gustav Brilhl, Die CtUtiirvblker Alt-A7nerica's^ pp. 369, sq. 
{Cincinnati, 1887). 
18 



274 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

of stone, and in the arid coast lands, of sun-dried 
bricks. They were located in groups surrounded by- 
walls, also of stone or brick. The stones were some- 
times fitted together with extraordinary nicety, or else- 
where were united with mortar or cement. Recent 
travellers have stated that the stone-work on some of 
the ruins of the Inca palaces is equal to that in any 
part of the world ; this is especially true of the myste- 
rious ruins of Tiahuanaco, near Lake Titicaca, where 
some of the most complete work on the continent is 
to be found. 

These architects had not discovered the pointed 
arch, as had the Mayas, and in the details of their 
structures, as in the forms of their doors and the per- 
fect simplicity of their walls, it is clearly seen that they 
thad no connection with the northern civilizations. 
The structures were rarely erected on pyramids or 
mounds, and frequently were of several stories in 
height. 

Their skill in the reduction and manufacture of va- 
rious metals excited the admiration of the Europeans. 
Among the articles they offered the Spaniards were 
utensils, both solid and hollow, of gold, imitations of 
fruits and animals of the same substance, golden but- 
terflies, idols, birds, masks, and mace-heads. Groups 
of half a dozen figures in various attitudes have been 
found of solid silver, the symmetry and expression 
being well preserved. 

There was a like exuberance in the forms they gave 
their pottery. The jars and vases were imitations 



ARTS IN PERU. 275 

of every kind of object around them — fish, birds, rep- 
tiles, fruits, men, houses. Often the product is so 
symmetrical that one is tempted to believe it was 
formed by a potter's wheel ; but this invention, so an- 
cient in the old world, was never known to the Amer- 
ican Race. Curious ingenuity is displayed in the pro- 
duction of whistling or musical jars, which will emit a 
note when the fluid is poured in; or trick-jars, which 
cannot be emptied unless turned in a certain direction, 
not at first obvious. The art of glazing was not 
known, and most of the pottery seems to have been 
sun-dried only. 

With the materialistic notions of religion and of a 
future life which they entertained, it was regarded of 
the utmost importance that the body should be pre- 
served undisturbed in the tomb. Hence it was often 
carefully mummified, and the sepulchres were selected 
in the most secret and inaccesible location, either a 
cave on the side of a precipice, or if in the plains the 
grave was levelled, so that no sign of it appeared on 
the surface. 

South of the Peruvian monarchy were the Arau- 
canians, occupying the area of the modern state of 
Chili. They were a warlike, hunting race, physically and 
also linguistically akin to the tribes of the Pampas. 
Neither the Incas nor the Spaniards succeeded in re- 
ducing their indomitable spirit. In culture they had 
gained an advantage over the Pampean tribes by their 
relations to the Qquichuas, but were far behind the 
latter in general aptitude in the arts. Much of their 



2^6 THE AMERICAN RACE. 

subsistence was dependent on the chase, and they are 
not classed among the partly civilized natives of the 
continent. They are described as tall and robust, the 
skull brachycephalic, the face round, the nose short 
and rather flattened. 



LECTURE X. 



PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

Contents. — I. Ethnographic Problems, i. The problem of 
acclimation. Various answers. Europeans in the tropics. Aust- 
africans in cold climates ; in warm climates. The Asian race. 
Tolerance of the American race. Theories of acclimation. Con- 
clusion. 2. The problem of amalgamation. Effect on offspring. 
Mingling of white and black races. Infertility. Mingling of 
colored races. Influence of early and present social conditions. 
Is amalgamation desirable ? As applied to white race ; to colored 
races. 3. The problem of civilization. Urgency of the problem. 
Influence of civilization on savages. Failure of missionary efforts. 
Cause of the failure. Suggestions. 

II. The Destiny of Races. Extinction of Races. The Amer- 
ican race. Are the Indians dying out? Conflicting statements. 
They are perishing. Diminution of insular peoples ; causes of 
fatality. The Austafrican race. The Mongolian race stationary. 
Wonderful growth of the Eurafrican race. Influence of the 
Semitic element. The future Aryo-Semitic race. 

Relation of ethnography to historical and political science. 

The population of the world in this year of 1890 
is estimated at over fifteen hundred millions. This 
vast multitude have passed in review before us in 
their races, peoples and nations. What is the future 
of these jostling millions, each individual of v/hom is 
striving after some goal, seeking to satisfy some 
desire ? 

(277) 



278 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

This momentous question depends directly on the 
solution of certain problems with which the ethno- 
grapher especially has to deal. On the right reading 
of these problems rests the destiny of races, and on 
the destiny of races hangs the fate of Man. We shall 
do well therefore to take home from the study of this 
science the horoscope it forecasts. 

The first of these inquiries is 

The Problem of Acclimation, 

How far can the various races not merely support 
and live through, but do good work in the varied cli- 
mates of the world ? 

Never was this question so urgent as to-day. With 
fleets of steamships ploughing every ocean, and the 
iron horse racing on its steel track over every conti- 
nent, the movement of men is conducted in such masses 
and with such rapidity that the most extensive migra- 
tions of nations of other ages seem insignificant in 
comparison. 

Like many other questions in ethnography, this one 
has been answered very variously, too often, evidently, 
by writers influenced by other motives than a single 
desire to reach the truth. It has been in close prox- 
imity to political and social movements, and facts have 
been twisted to serve the purposes of advocates. 

The facts, indeed, are easily liable to misinterpreta- 
tion. Take the white race, for instance. It has for 
centuries possessed flourishing colonies not only in the 
southern temperate zone, which would not surprise 



EUROPEANS IN THE TROPICS. 279 

US, but under the torrid suns of India, Mexico and 
Brazil, in Java and the Isle of France, in the West and 
East Indies, not to speak of the Hamitic tribes, who 
thousands of years ago established themselves on the 
borders of the Sudan (see above, p. ii6). Long be- 
fore that, the Indo-Aryans had crossed the Hindu 
Kush and extended their sway over the Dravidian 
peoples of Hindostan. 

But in these tropical regions have they not merely 
existed, but also prospered? Have they retained, 
along with the purity of their blood, also their fecun- 
dity, their viability and their energy? I must reply 
emphatically. No. In the words of a medical observer 
of ample experience in the tropics — '^ The changes 
which a torrid climate impresses upon the constitution 
of Europeans and upon their descendants are patho- 
logical, and tend with fatal certainty to the extinction 
of the race." ^ In India the children of English 
parents must be sent back to Great Britain or they will 
perish. It is said that in the history of the civil serv- 
ice there has not been a single family which survived 
three generations. Even the first generation loses the 
energy which characterizes the parental stock. The 
whites nowhere in the tropics can undergo continuous 
physical toil exposed to the sun. They are always 
found subsisting on the labor of the native races. 

The Spanish and Portuguese population of tropical 
America have survived in their new home for nearly 

* Dr. J. Orgeas, La Pathologic des Races Humaines^ p. 481 (Paris, 



28o PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

four hundred years. But when have they displayed 
the astonishing energy of the early Conquistadores? 
Many of the so-called Spanish Creoles are really of 
mixed blood. In Peru and Mexico it is hard to find a 
family without the strain of another race in its pedi- 
gree. In Cuba, where there has been the least ex- 
posure to this result, owing to the prompt extinction of 
the natives, the descendants of the early European im- 
migrants are enfeebled and infertile. While in Mexico, 
in Guatemala, and in Yucatan, the men of prominent 
energy are either of mixed blood or, like the late Gov- 
ernor Barrios, are of the once conquered, the pure 
American race. I do not call a race acclimated which 
merely manages to exist, at the sacrifice of those qual- 
ities which are. its highest claim to distinction. 

On the other hand, the black race finds it hopeless 
to struggle with the climate above the fortieth parallel 
of latitude. In no portion of Southern Europe did it 
ever maintain itself, and when its members were car- 
ried in numbers as slaves to Mauritius and Ceylon, 
they succumbed to the change.* Even in Africa it is 
doubtful if it ever eflfected a permanent settlement on 
the shores of the Mediterranean. Pulmonary diseases 
and scrofula are the chief morbid changes which de- 
stroy its emigrants. 

In the West Indies and generally in tropical and 
sub-tropical America they seem to flourish. In the 
United States the ^' colored people '' increase by birth 

* Authorities in Hovelacque et Herve, Precis d^ Anthropologies 214, 
sq. 



ACCLIMATION OF RACES. 281 

more rapidly in proportion than the whites, though 
this calculation includes the mulattoes and others of 
mixed blood. 

Whether the Asian race has greater or less powers 
of acclimation than others is a question of much signifi- 
cance at present, when the teeming millions of the Ce- 
lestial empire seem ready to pour forth in resistless 
floods over the whole earth. We are not prepared to 
reply. The subjection of this race to foreign climatic 
influences has been too recent and under conditions too 
exceptional to furnish the requisite data; and in their 
own land, the Chinese, from whom we look for the 
most portentous migrations, have lived in a country 
which does not present contrasts equal to those of the 
various zones. 

The American race may be regarded as an excep- 
tion to the others. The area it always occupied ex- 
tended from one polar circle to the other, including 
every degree of altitude, and every extreme of temper- 
ature to which man is exposed. No difference in the 
viability or the energy of its members in various parts 
of the continent can be noted. The most remarkable 
monuments of its toilsome industry were completed 
under the tropical sun of Yucatan ; while one of the 
most ingenious of its tribes lived the farthest north of 
any human beings. The physical energy of the stal- 
wart Patagonian is not superior to that of the active 
Carib or the northern Algonkin. We may possibly 
find the explanation of this in the trend of the chief 
mountains and rivers of the continent, which facilitated 



282 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

easy progress from north to south, while in the eastern 
hemisphere the trend running parallel with the latitude, 
separated the early peoples into smaller climatic areas. 

While the f -ts so far as ascertained seem to point 
to the decision that each race is confined to climatic 
conditions similar to that of its original area of charac- 
terization, the theory has been advanced that this is 
but for a time, that by persistence and repeated sacri- 
fices of the unfit, finally a remnant will survive fully 
able to face the novel trials of the climatic change."^ 

This, however, is a theory only. It may be allowed 
credence to the extent that the survival of a remnant 
is possible ; but it would be at the sacrifice of the dis- 
tinctive qualities of the higher races ; those can flourish 
only under the physical conditions which gave them 
birth. 

It has also been urged that the improved sanitary 
hygienic science of modern times will do efficient bat- 
tle against the lethal influences of strange climes. 
Doubtless in individual cases such precautions are of 
the highest value ; they aid the system in withstanding 
malarial and zymotic poisons ; but the best of them, 
employed on the v/idest scale, will prove sadly inade- 
quate, as is shown by their failure in many a tract in 
the temperate zone. If we cannot restore salubrity to 
the Roman Campagna, or to Staten Island in New 
York Harbor, it is more than wild to talk of rendering 
healthful the Congo Basin. 

* This is the opinion advocated by de Quatrefages. His argu- 
ments will be found in the seventh chapter of his Histoire Generate 
des Races Humames (Paris, 1889). 



MISCEGENATION. 283 

I am tempted, therefore, to consider this problem 
of accHmation insoluble, and to express myself in the 
words of the learned physician I have already quoted, 
*' There is no such thing as acclimation. A race never 
was acclimated, and in the present condition of the 
world, a race never can become acclimated/' * 

The second of our inquiries relates to 

The Problem of Amalgamation 

— that which the French call metissage and the Amer- 
icans miscegenation. The fact that we have manufac- 
tured this '' recent and ill-formed word,''' as Webster's 
Unabridged calls it, is evidence that the questions in- 
volved in this problem touch us nearly. They touch 
the whole world, and very closely. I know of noth- 
ing within the range of human power to control, more 
decisive of the future prosperity or failure of the 
human species than this of the effect of race-intermar- 
riage. 

The consequences of such blendings may be studied 
with reference to the viability of the offspring, their 
mental faculties, and their fecundity. 

At the outset it is important to premise that the 
question cannot be treated as simple and single. It is 
complex. The results of race-crossings differ with 
races and with evironment. The law that applies to 
one case in one place is not certainly good in other 
cases and elsewhere. 

It seems, for instance, tolerably certain that the 

* Dr. J. Orgeas, La Pathologie des Races Htimaines^ p. 481. 



284 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

cross between the white and black races produces 
offspring (miilattoes) who are deficient in physical 
vigor. It is well ascertained in the United States 
that they are peculiarly prone to scrofula and con- 
sumption, unable to bear hard w^ork, and shorter lived 
than either the full black or the wdiite. This is not 
owing to our climate, as the same results are recog- 
nized by the negroes of the Gold Coast, who for four 
hundred years have been in constant contact with the 
whites.^ In the West India Islands, the mulattoes 
must be constantly reinforced by new crossings, or 
they disappear. 

The fertility of such unions, though generally equal 
if the number of births alone is considered, is really 
less on account of the greater mortality of the infants. 
As a rule, the third generation of descendants of a 
marriage between the white and the Polynesian, Aus- 
tralian or Dravidian, become extinct through short 
lives, feeble constitutions or sterility. According to 
one writer, except a few small islands in the Pacific, 
there is not an instance of a modern population of 
mixed white blood, living by itself, vv^hich is not on 
the road to extinction. f 

It is not certain that this applies either to the cross- 
ing of the Eurafrican or the African with the Ameri- 
can race. The half-breed betv/een the negro and the 
Indian, of which we have examples in the Cafusos of 

* Darwin, The Desceiit of Man, p. 171 (New York, 1883). 
t Dally, quoted in Hovelacque et Herve, Precis d^ Anthropologies 
p. 218. 



RACE-HYBRIDS. 285 

Brazil, the Zambos of Paraguay, the Chinos of Peru, 
and the '' Black Caribs '' of St. Vincent, are said to be 
finely formed and vigorous. Throughout Mexico, 
Central and South America, there has been a blending 
of the white and red races on an enormous scale, and 
the result has been that both physically and mentally 
this mixed race has repeatedly taken precedence in 
political and social life over the pure descendants of 
the European colonists. It is well-known that the 
half-breeds of our frontiers, of British America and of 
Greenland, are singularly hardy, intelligent and vigor- 
ous scouts, guides, hunters and soldiers. Not a few 
of them have distinguished themselves in our colleges, 
and later in clerical and political life. 

It would appear also that in the earlier conditions 
of social life, no such debility attended the crossing of 
the Eurafrican and African race as seems at present to 
be the case. The only physiological explanation which 
can be offered of the numerous negroid tribes of 
eastern and southern Africa, is that they are the de- 
scendants of prolonged and intimate unions between 
the pure negroes and members of the Hamitic and 
Semitic divisions of the white race (see above, p. 185). 
This permits the suggestion that there are special 
causes now at work which alter the influences of race- 
mixture from what they once were. 

Some of them are patent. In modern times it is an 
almost universal law that all mixed-white populations 
derive their white blood exclusively from the father, 
their dark blood exclusively from the mother. I do 



286 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

not know that I can tell you precisely what efifect this 
would have,^ but it is certain that such a divergence 
from what is customary within the race limits would 
exert a decided influence both physically and socially. 
It is generally believed among students of heredity 
that the pscyhical qualities are inherited more from 
the mother, the physical more from the father ; and if 
this holds good in most cases, we should expect the 
children of such unions to be intellectually inferior to 
the average of their parents. This I think is true, 
Advocates of miscegenation, such as de Quatrefages, 
Serres and others, are apt to draw a different conclu- 
sion, because they compare the average intellectual 
ability of the products of such unions with the average 
of the lower race, and this is certainly in favor of the 
mixed stock, but is an unscientific procedure. 

It is also true that in perhaps ninety per cent, of the 
cases, these mixed unions are illegal, and the children 
suffer under the stigma of illegitimacy. This means 
more or less deficiency in home training, education, 
legal protection, and social recognition. In primitive 
conditions this was not the case, and hence race 
minglings at that time were under far more favorable 
auspices. 

In most modern communities the prejudice against 
members or partial members of the dark races forces 
them to rest content with unequal advantages, if not 
educational, at least social, and the recognition of 

* See the question discussed by Waitz, Anthropologie der Natur- 
volker, Bd. I, s. i88. 



THE DUTY OF WOMAN. 287 

these invisible barriers must necessarily have a deter- 
iorating influence on ambition. This of course was 
not the case in primitive society, where no other power 
was recognized than that of the strong right arm. 

The possibility of a vigorous and fertile cross-race 
under certain co 'itions seems therefore to have been 
demonstrated by the past history of the species. Is it 
a desirable result in itself? May we look forward to 
the commingling of races as worth the fostering care 
of states and societies? The question bristles with 
difficulties — moral, not physical difficulties. 

There can be no doubt but that any white mixed 
race is lower in the scale of intelligence than the pure 
white race. A white man entails indelible degradation 
on his descendants who takes in marriage a woman of 
a darker race; and any relation other than that of 
marriage, no matter if it does lift the lov/er race, is 
unauthorized by any sound moral code. Still more to 
be deplored is the woman of the white race who unites 
herself with a man of a lower ethnic type. It cannot 
be too often repeated, too emphatically urged, that it 
is to the women alone of the highest race that Vv^e 
must look to preserve the purity of the type, and with 
it the claims of the race to be the highest. They have 
no holier duty, no more sacred mission, than that of 
transmitting in its integrity the heritage of ethnic en- 
dowment gained by the race through thousands of 
generations of struggle. That philanthropy is false, 
that religion is rotten, which would sanction a white 
woman enduring the embrace of a colored man. 



288 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

The two problems we have now discussed seem to 
present a dilemma. The pure races do not flourish 
out of their physiological surroundings ; and yet some 
of them are not adequate for the work required by 
modern culture. What resource have we? The an- 
swer is, in the union of the lower races among them- 
selves, especially the Mongolian and the African. 
Thus we may expect a blending capable of resisting 
the heat of the tropics, and intelligent enough to carry 
out the directions of that race which will ever and 
everywhere maintain its supremacy so long as it 
maintains its ethnic purity — the Eurafrican. 

Let us now turn to - 

The Problem of Civilization. 

It is one which has arisen within the last two or 
three centuries, and is nov/ so urgent that it will have 
an instant reply. With increased means of locomo- 
tion and augmented love of progress, civilization is 
now transported, with all its complex forces, to every 
nation and every tribe, no matter where or of what 
race, and the question is put point blank. Will you ac- 
cept this precious gift, or will you have it forced upon 
you, with such results as may happen? Japan has 
welcomed the message, inscrutable China hesitates, 
Persia wavers, the miserable Australians refuse, the 
savages turn their back— all in vain ; the message is 
importunate, will take no denial, must be accepted. 
Opposition means destruction. The Bechuana kraal 
which refuses to have a grand opera house and electric 



MISSIONARY EFFORTS. 289 

lights, if the European sees fit to put them there, will 
be wiped out of existence. So will every tribe, every 
nation, every race, which sets forth to oppose the re- 
sistless flow of civilized progress. 

Preservation, however, and not destruction, is the 
maxim of the ripest culture. The Tasmanian is ex- 
tinct, the Polynesian disappearing, many an American 
tribe lives only in name, all gone down before the 
fierce flames of a civilization which did not lighten, 
but consumed them. Many another people is disap- 
pearing in the same way, in spite of the devoted efforts 
of earnest men and women to save them, to bring 
them into accord with the thought of the higher race, 
to teach them the boundless blessings of European 
enlightenment. 

What is the history of these efforts? Failure, and 
yet again failure. Consider the history of the attempts 
to bring the American race into accord with the 
European. There were the noble endeavors of the 
Jesuits in Paraguay, the untiring zeal of the Francis- 
cans in Yucatan, the admirable devotion of the Mora- 
vian brethren in the northern continent, and the long 
list of missionary societies in Protestant churches. 
These represent the most sustained, unselfish and 
enlightened efforts which have ever been made to 
civilize the Indians. They are of the same nature 
and on the same plan as those which have been and 
still are directed toward other savage peoples, the 
Polynesians and Africans for example. 

Have they been successful? Can an instance be 
19 



290 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

adduced where they have achieved a full and perma- 
nent introduction of a savage tribe to the real benefits 
of our civilization ? 

I cannot answer for the history of missions through- 
out the world, but I can and do for my special field, 
America, and I say, not a single instance of success 
can be named. The Jesuits and the Moravians suc- 
ceeded, indeed, in reclaiming the natives from their 
wild life ; they transformed them from warring savages 
into peaceful planters ; from drunken, cruel and super- 
stitious, they made them sober, kind and religious. 
This was a noble, an admirable result. But were their 
converts any the more able to accept the civilization of 
Europe ? Not a whit. David Zeisberger's last sermon 
was a wail that his sixty years' of missionary work had 
failed to accomplish this result. Ten years after the 
expulsion of the Jestiits from Paraguay, their extensive 
'^ reductions, '' which at one time included thirty or 
forty thousand Christianized natives, were a heap of 
ruins, and the converts dispersed to the four winds — 
and this after nearly two centuries of training! 

Should we conclude from these sad histories that it 
is impossible to bring the existing savage nations into 
accord with our own culture? This is not my conclu- 
sion. Rather I infer that we have not tried the proper 
measures. We have relied almost exclusively on mis- 
sionary religious work, forgetting that our religion is 
only one part of our civilization, and, so far as it is 
dogmatic and ceremonial, much the least part. We 
have been singularly inconsequent. We send our own 



SUGGESTIONS FOR MISSION WORK. 29I 

children six days to a secular school, and only on the 
seventh to a bunday-school ; but the poor Indian we 
send to Sunday-school all seven days, and then expect 
him to have an education like our own ! Our mission- 
aries hold up to the savage pictures of Christian 
brotherhood, of unselfish motive, of universal charity, 
which he soon finds have no existence in Christian 
communities or modern civilization. If he is an hon- 
est convert, he is absolutely disqualified from contact 
with civilized peoples ! The Jesuits and the Moravians, 
both practical orders, knew this well, and therefore not 
only prevented their acolytes learning European 
tongues, but used every means at their command to 
banish all relations between the two races in those 
imder their control. 

It may seem uncharitable in me to oppose and con- 
demn missionary enterprises in savage communities ; 
but I do so under the full conviction that as usually 
conducted they fail, and are bound to fail, in the most 
excellent aim they have in view. To succeed, they 
should be combined with a broad secular education, 
with a full recognition of the real impulses of modern 
life, and an efifort to inculcate sound principles rather 
than respect for ceremonies and dogmas, about which 
the Christian sects themselves are never in unison. 
The native religious and moral codes should be 
studied, and all that is good in them — generally there 
is a great deal of good — should be retained ; right ac- 
tions should be based on respect for law, on the inher- 
ent sense of justice, on natural affection, and not 



292 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

merely on ecclesiastical edicts. Above all, independ- 
ence of thought should be encouraged, the principles 
of religious and political freedom should be held up as 
superior to those of subjection, and the convert should 
be instrLKted that attachment to any particular creed is 
in no wise requisite to enjoy the best results of civili- 
zation. 

It may be objected that doctrines such as these 
would leave the missionary as such little to teach. I 
reply that these doctrines are true, and are those nec- 
essary to the reception of civilization, and if they are 
omitted or obscured, the missionary is not an apostle 
of light, but of darkness, and that his efforts will 
prove unsuccessful in the future, as they have in the 
past. 

The consideration of this problem of civilization 
leads us to cast a glance at the future and to ponder 
on 

The Destiny of Races. 

We are well aware that many a family, many a 
tribe, many a linguistic stock, has perished off the face 
of the earth, leaving no trace of its existence. Of 
others we know but the '' naked nominations.'' May 
not whole races have followed the same fatal course? 
Nay, more, may not some of the existing races be 
likewise doomed, as the mature tree, to fall and dis- 
appear ? 

It was the opinion of the learned Broca that certain 
osseous remains in Europe point to a race once there 



THE INDIAN PROBLEM. 293 

entirely unlike any other, modern or ancient."^ The 
gloomy precedent is established, therefore, and we 
have to reflect if it applies to any now living varieties 
of our species. 

Beginning at home, we may first inquire concerning 
the American race. The question. Are the Indians 
dying out? was investigated some years ago by 
learned authorities at Washington, who announced the 
cheerful result that, contrary to the universal opinion, 
the red man is not decreasing at all, but increasing in 
numbers ! f 

I have studied these pleasing statements with care, 
and regret that I do not reach the same satisfactory 
conclusions. The writers in question take no account 
of the signs of a dense ancient population in the Ohio 
valley, in Michigan, in Florida, in the Pueblo region ; 
they take for granted that the estimates of all the early 
voyagers and travelers were gross exaggerations ; they 
pay no attention to the historic fact that the natives of 
the Atlantic coast suffered severely from epidemic 
diseases before the English established their first set- 
tlements, diseases probably disseminated from the 
Spanish colonies in Florida or Mexico ; finally^ they 
commit the fatal ethnographic error of confounding 
under the name '' Indians '' both the pure and the 
mixed memoers of the race. 

* Quoted in Darwin, The Descent of Man, p. 182. 

t S. N. Clark, Cu'cnlai" of the Bureau of Education, Washington, 
1877 ; Garrick Mallery, in Proceedings of the Avier. Assoc. Adv. 
Science, 1877, p. 340. 



294 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

This last oversight vitiates all the argument. No 
one is prepared to say that some faint strain of native 
American blood may not be perpetuated indefinitely. 
But this is not the survival of the race or of the '' In- 
dians/' any more than the Normans survive to-day in 
England. 

My own studies convince me that the American 
race is and has long been disappearing, both actually, 
tribe by tribe, and relatively, by admixture with the 
whites. In our own area there were many tribes 
once of considerable numbers, who have become 
wholly extinct. The Timucuas of Florida, the Ca- 
tawbas of South Carolina, the Monacans of Virginia, 
the Mohegans of New York, the Boethucs of New- 
foundland, have no living representatives. The whole 
of the inhabitants of the Bahamas and Greater Antilles 
were hurried to destruction in a couple of generations 
after the discovery by Columbus. The list would be 
long w^ere I to recapitulate the dead languages known 
by name or by a few sentences in some old missionary 
book, to the student of American linguistics. 

The process is not suspended. Beginning at the 
north with the Eskimos, we find their number steadily 
diminishing ; '^ the Athabascas, according to Petitot, 
are but a wreck of their former selves ; of the tribes of 
the United States, Miss Alice Fletcher, who has trav- 
eled extensively among them, assures me that in a few 
generations there will be scarcely any of pure descent 

* This is the statement of Dr. F. Nansen, the recent explorer of 
Greenland, and many others. 



FATE OF THE POLYNESIANS. 295 

surviving ; and I have noted for myself on the reserva- 
tions what an increasing proportion of the young peo- 
ple reveal the infusion of European blood. 

The same is true all over the Continent. The 
American Indian, as such, is destined to disappear 
before European civilization. If he retains his habits 
he will be exterminated ; if he aims to preserve an un- 
mixed descent, he will be crushed out by disease and 
competition ; his only resource is to blend his race with 
the whites, and this infallibly means his disappearance 
from the scene. 

The Island World, extending from Easter Island to 
Madagascar, presents the same spectacle. The abor- 
iginal, undersized Negritos have long disappeared 
from many of the larger islands where they lived in 
historic times ; and on the Philippines and elsewhere 
the report is that they are slowly but steadily drifting 
toward annihilation."^ The Tasmanians have perished. 
to the last man ; the Australians are one-fifth wdiat 
they were estimated by the best authorities at the be- 
ginning of the century; tha Maoris of New Zealand 
have lessened one-half; the natives of Easter Island 
have sunk from twenty-five hundred in 1850 to less 
than three hundred; and so on for nearly all the 
Polynesian islands. 

This extreme fatality has received the earnest at- 
tention of philanthropists and scientific physicians. 
Its causes are visible. They are the introduction of 

* F. Blumentritt, Die EtJutographie der Phillipmen^ s. 8 (Gotha, 
1882). 



296 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

new epidemics, as measles, small-pox, syphilis and 
consumption, the last mentioned peculiarly fatal, and 
now recognized as eminently contagious under certain 
conditions; an in^x eased infant mortality; drunkenness 
and its consequences ; and diminished fecundity in 
the women. This last is both one of the most potent 
and one of the obscurest of the causes of diminished 
population. Why at some certain period a people 
should be smitten with sterility is a mysterious fact, 
for which the explanation must be postponed until we 
become better acquainted with the many enigmas 
which surround the process of reproduction. 

Add to the death-rate the considerable percentage 
of children who are born of unions with the White, 
the Asian or the African races, and are thus no longer 
representatives of the ancestral stock, and we m.ust 
acknowledge that these insular peoples are in no 
better, even a worse case than the American Indians. 
They, too, are sitting beneath the Damocles sword of 
extinction. 

Such an assertion is doubtfully applicable to the 
Austafrican race. I have already referred to some 
statistics showing its heavy mortality in the isles of 
France and Ceylon, and the German ethnographer 
Ratzel is inclined to believe that it is diminishing in 
Central Africa itself.* But the census returns of our 
own country and of the West Indies show a positive 



* Fr. Ratzel, Vblkerkunde^ Bd. I, s. 628, who quotes the authority 
of Du Chaillu. 



DECREASE OF THE ASIAN RACE. 297 

and rapid increas^ particularly if we include the large 
population of mixed blood. 

We have been taught in this country to look with 
something like terror on the teeming millions of China, 
only awaiting the chance to overrun the whole earth, 
imderbid all other laborers, profit by the fruits of our 
more liberal governments and nobler religions, and 
give nothing in return. A few centuries ago a still 
more dreadful fear haunted the nations of Europe 
that some other Timurlane or Genghis Khan would 
lead his countless hordes of merciless Mongolians 
from the steppes of Siberia across the cultivated fields 
of the Danube to wipe out, as with a sponge, the glo- 
rious picture of renascent European culture. 

The latter fear no longer disturbs any mind. The 
mightiest of the Tartar powers is but a shadow, main- 
tained by the mutual jealousy of Europeans them- 
selves ; the illimitable steppes of Tatary and Mongolia 
acknowledge the suzerainty of the Slavonian ; and the 
nomadic hordes of the steppes and tundras are steadily 
diminishing under the same baneful influences of 
civilization which are blighting the Australian and the 
American. 

Whether this is true also of the Sinitic stocks, espe- 
cially of the Chinese, we have no positive information. 
It has been rumored that of late years repeated periods 
of drought, resulting in disastrous famine, have mate- 
rially reduced the population of the interior of China, 
many perishing and others removing nearer the coast. 
As it is only near the coast that foreigners have the 



298 PROBLEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

opportunity to observe the people, it is likely that they 
bring away an exaggerated notion of the density of 
population in the country at large. It is at any rate 
doubtful if the Chinese are more than stationary. 

Widely different is the vista which appears before us 
when we contemplate the Eurafrican race. It goes 
forth conquering and to conquer, extending its empire 
over all continents and to the remotest islands of the 
sea. Never has that progress been so rapid as to-day. 
Two centuries ago the whole of the white race which 
could lay claim to purity of blood numbered not over 
one hundred milHons, or ten per cent, of the population 
of the world, and was confined to the limits of Europe 
and North Africa ; now the European branch of it 
alone counts nearly five hundred milHons, or one-third 
of the whole. In the year 1800, the non-resident 
whites of European descent were ten millions | now 
they are over eighty millions. Every navy and every 
army of any fighting capacity belong to the European 
whites and their descendants. No nation and no race 
of other lineage dare withstand an attack or disobey 
an order from a leading European power. Africa and 
Asia are dismembered and parceled out at London, 
Berlin and St. Petersburg, and no one dreams of ask- 
ing the consent of the inhabitants of those continents. 

This astonishing progress is not due alone to the 
North Mediterranean branch of the Eurafrican race. 
The representatives of the South Mediterranean branch 
are for a large part in it. In the forefront of it, 
whether in the great capitals of Europe or in the 



THE FUTURE ARYO-SEMITIC STOCK. 299 

pioneer towns of the frontiers, we find the acute and 
versatile Semite, full of energy and knowledge, guiding 
in councils, his master hand on the levers of the vast- 
est financial schemes, his subtle policy governing the 
diplomacy of statesmen and the decisions of directors. 
As Prof. Gerland has well said, there is something in 
the Semitic character which is complementary to that 
of the Aryan, "^ and it is not without significance that 
the surprising development of the latter began when 
the religious prejudices against the Jews commenced 
to yield to more enlightened sentiments. They are 
now the growing people. Statistics show that in 
Europe, while the Aryac population doubles in num- 
ber in thirty-four years, the Semites double in twenty- 
five years, having more children to a marriage and 
less infantile mortality. f When bigotry ceases on 
both sides, and free inter-marriage restores the Aryo- 
Semitic stock to its original unity, we may look for a 
race of nobler capacities than any now existing. 

Still mor: rapid would that progress be, still more 
beneficent would be the sway of European civilization, 
could the great powers of that continent lay aside un- 
worthy jealousies, and agree to extend in harmony the 
blessings of just government and sound education over 
other races. An unreasoning distrust has prevented 
the removal of the barbaric Sibiric power which 
centers at Constantinople ; and the excellent results of 

* George Gerland, Anthropologische Beitrdf^e^ Bd. I., s. 5 (Halle, 
1875). 

t Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic^ 1887, s. %Z. 



300 PR0I4LEMS AND PREDICTIONS. 

the extension of the Slavonian supremacy in Central 
Asia have been studiously ignored by British writers. 

Reflections such as these teach us how closely the 
study of ethnographic science is related to practical 
politics. Ethnography, indeed, is the necessary basis 
of correct history and sound statesmanship. It offers 
to history a foundation on natural law ; it explains 
events by showing their dependence on the physical 
structure, the mental pecularities, and the geographic 
surroundings of the peoples engaged in them ; it pre- 
sents, in its present pictures of savage life, the condi- 
tion of the highest nations in the earlier stages of their 
culture. 

To the statesman it offers those facts about the ca- 
pacities and limitations of peoples which should guide 
his dealings with them ; it comes with no vague theory 
of optimism or pessimism, such as doctrinaire phil- 
osophers love to air, but with the admonition that 
each people, each race, must be studied by itself, free 
from bias, free from bigotry, and with the conviction 
that no matter what metaphysics say, any nation, as 
any man, may lift itself by the recognition of those 
indefeasible and universal elements of the mind, the 
'' I,'' the " ought,'' and the '' can '' — the reverence of 
self, the respect for duty, and the devotion to freedom. 

" Man who man would be, 
Must rule the empire of himself ; in it 
Must be supreme, establishing his throne 
On vanquished will, quelling the anarchy 
Of hopes and fears, being himself alone." 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



Abel, C, 150. 
Achelis, T., 95. 
Allen, H., 27. 
Andree, R., 45. 
Avienus, R. F., 122. 

Barth, R., 116, 119, 122. 
Bartels, M., 40. 
Bastian, A., 95, 237, 243, 266. 
Beddoe, J., 31, 146. 
Beauregard, O., 231. 
Berendt, C. H., 267. 
Bergaigne, A., 170. 
Berth elot, S., 116, 117. 
Bertin, G., 132. 
.Bissuell, H., 126. 
Bleicher, Dr., 90. 
Blumentritt, F., 225, 226, 295. 
Boas, F., 258. 
Bonaparte, R., 213. 
Borsari, F., 117. 
Brinton, D. G., 54, 61, 71, 75, 122, 

124, 255, 262, 266. 
Broca, P., 30, 117, 120, 143, 292. 
Brugmann, K., 151. 
Briihl, G., 273. 
Bunsen, 123. 
Brugsch, 124. 



Callimachus, 117. 
Candolle, A. de, 39, 109, 147. 
Cartailhac, E., 90. 
Castelnau, F. de, 224. 
Chantre, E., 172. 
Chudzinski, 30. 
Clark, S. N., 293. 
Collignon, R., 90, 1 18. 
Cope, E. D., 27. 
Curr, E. N., 241. 
Curtius, 159. 

Dall, W. H., 215. 

Dallas, J., 226. 

Dally, 284. 

Darwin, C, 20, 43, 85, S6, 95, 

219, 284, 293. 
Delattre, A. L., 130. 
Delisle, F., 192. 
Delitzsch, 126. 
Deniker, J., 215. 
Doughty, 134. 
Du Chaillu, 178, 296. 
Duncker, Max, 159, 160. 
Duveyrier, 126. 



(301) 



Earl, G. W., 237, 240. 
Ella, L., 228. 



302 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



Emin Bey, 178. 

D'Escayrac de Lauture, 201, 203, 
216. 



Faidherbe, 117, 120. 

Faurot, L., 132. 

Finsch, O., 221, 227, 228, 234, 238. 

Pletcher, A., 294. 

Fligier, Dr., 123, 139, 148, 159. 

Flower, W. H., 27, 226. 

Fornander, 236. 

Fritsch, N., 179. 



Gaudry, A., 85. 
Geiger, L., 148. 
Gerland, G., 191, 299. 
Glaser, E., 133. 
Gooch, W. D., 91. 

Habel, S., 266. 

Haeckel, E., 32, 223. 

Flahn, T., 180. 

Hale, H., 61, 229, 237, 240. 

Halevy, 125, 126. 

Haliburton, R. G., 132. 

Hamy, 233, 240. 

Harris, W. B., 117. 

Haughton, S., 94. 

Haynes, W. W., 129. 

Herodotus, 121, 166. 

Herve, G., 160, 165, 217, 232, 

280, 284. 
Hobbes, ^^. 
Holden, L., 20, 29. 
Hooker, J., 126. 
Hopkins, S. W., 256. 



Hovelacque, A., 160, 217, 232. 
Humboldt, W., 122, 150. 
Huxley, 89. 

Kant, E., 59. 
Keane, A. H., 213, 233. 
Kolliker, A., 29. 
Kollman, J., 108. 
Krause, A., 258. 
Kulischer, M., 59. 
Kuun, G., 166. 



Lang, R. H., 160. 
Lapouge, G. de, 129, 147. 
Latham, R. G., 146. 
Leclerc, 179. 
Lenormant, 122. 
Lesson, 236. 
Lubbock, J., 67, 90. 
Lumholtz, C, 55, 240, 241, 
Lyman, B. S., 217. 

Mackenzie, J., 192. 
Mallery, G., 293. 
Man, E. H., 225. 
Mantegazza, 197. 
Martinet, 236. 
Martins, von, 270. 
Matthews, W., 23. 
Maury, 239. 
Meyer, A. B., 227. 
Meyer, K., 42. 
Michel, F., 252. 
Montaigne, 58. 
Montano, J., 226. 
Morgan, L. FI., 58, loi. 
Morse, E. S., 34, 94. 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



303 



Mortillet, G., 85, 89. 

Miiller, P'r., 115, 122, 188, 210, 

214, 230, 232, 239. 
Miiller, M., 83, 144. 
Miiller, Dr. M., 124. 

Nansen, F., 294. 
Newman, 122. 
Nordenskiold, N. A. E., 214. 

D'Omalius, d'Halloy, 93, 146, 148, 

166. 
Orgeas, J., 279, 283. 

Packard, A. T., 249. 
Palgrave, G., 132. 
Penka, C, 147, 162. 
Peschel, O., 20, 223. 
Petitot, E., 251. 
Pitt-Rivers, 129. 
Ploix, M., t8i. 
Posche, T., 147. 
Potocki, 167. 
Pruner Bey, 118. 

Quatrefages, A. de, 95, 143, 172, 

177, 191, 239, 282. 
Quedlinfeldt, 118. 

Radde, Dr., 30. 
Ratzel, F., 233, 239, 296. 
Rawlinson, 118, 126. 
Reclus, E., 44, 243. 
Reiss, W., 129. 
Ribbe, F. C, 22. 
Riccardi, P., 35. 
Ritter, 116. 



Rittich, A. F., 17T, 208, 214, 215. 
Roskof, G., (i']. 
Rousselet, L., 168. 

St. Vincent, B. de, 122. 

Sayce, A. H., 115, 126, 147. 

Schliemann, H., 160. 

Schmidt, E., 22. 

Schneider, W., 53, 55, (fj, 

Schrader, O., 147, 162. 

Schweinfurth, K., 179. 

Scylax, 117. 

Seeland, N., 211. 

Spencer, H., 56, 6"]. 

Steinen, K, von den., 268, 270. 

Stone, J. H., 116. 

Strabo, 117. 

Suess, E., 88, 89, 222. 



Tautain, L., 184, 193. 

Taylor, I., no, 112, 143, 146, 149, 

159, 162. 
Ten Kate, Dr., 256. 
Testut, L., i,'}^, 
Thompson, A., 235. 
Tiele, C. P., 42. 
Topinard, P., 31, 36. 
Tubino, Dr., 144. 

Verneau, Dr., n6. 
Virchow, R., 27, 31, 80, 109, 128, 
129, 145, 148, 163, 172, 229. 

Wagner, M., 20, 44, 221. 
Waitz, Th., 20, 40, 186, 286. 
Wake, C. S., 239. 
Wallace, A. R., 89, 196, 227. 



304 



INDEX OF AUTHORS. 



Wharton, 151. 
Whitman, W., 177. 
Whitney, W. D., 162. 
Wilson, D., 75. 
Winkler, H., 144, 212, 215. 



Woldrich, J. N., 84. 

Zampa, R., 159. 
Zeisberger, D., 290. 
Zittel, C, 90. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



Abyssinians, 135. 

Acclimation, 278. 

Adals, 131. 

Aetas, 35, 224. 

Afars, 131. 

Affection, 155- 

Africa, derivation. 122. 

Agaonas, 131. 

Agathyrsi, 166. 

Agriculture, 72. 

Ainos, 33, 216. 

Afghans, 168. 

Akka, 178, 179. 

Albanians, 152, 158. 

Albinism, 45. 

Aleutians, 216, 250. 

Alfurese, 233, 234. 

Alemanni, 163. 

Algonkins, 252. 

Allophyllic stocks, 114. 

Amalgamation, 283. 

Amhara, 135. 

American Indians, 71, 247, 293. 

American religions, 71. 

American race, 247, 281, 293, 

Amorites, 126. 

Amoshagh, 122. 

Ancestral worship, 56, 68. 

Andaman islands, 224. 

20 ( 



Angles, 163. 
Anglo-American, 164. 
Animals, domestic, 72. 
Animism, 68. 
Annamese, 206. 
Apaches, 251. 
Apes, extinct, 84. 
Aquitanians, 143. 
Arabia Felix, 134. 
Arabians, 125, 133. 
Arameans, 137. 
Araucarians, 275. 
Arawaks, 268. 
Architecture, 72, 
Areas of characterization, 94. 
Armenians, 167. 
Armorican, 154. 
Arms, length of, 28. 
Arnauts, 158, 
Arrow releases, 34. 
Aryac stock, 144. 
Aryac migration, 153. 
Aryans, origin of, 144. 
Aryo-Semitic stock, 150, 299. 
Ashanti, 185. 
Asia, 89. 

Asian race, the, 195, 281. 
Assyrians, 126, 130, 150. 
Athapascans, 251, 

305) 



3o6 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. - 



Atlas mountains, 89, 112. 

Attila, 210. 

Austafrica, 89. 

Austafrican race, 98, 173, 296. 

Australians, 33^ 35, 43, 46, 53, 55, 

239, 240. 
Auvergnats, 107. 
Avars, 171, 210. 
Avesta, the, 145, 167. 
Aymaras, 272. 
Aztecs, 259. 

Baber, 209. 

Bactrians, 167. 

Bambaras, 184. 

Baniuns, 183. 

Bantu group, 189. 

Barabras, 187. 

Barbari, 121. 

Baris, 181. 

Basques, 107, iii, 112, 142, 143. 

Battaks, 233, 234. 

Batuas, 178. 

Bedawins, 133. 

Bechuanas, 189, 192. 

Bedjas, 131. 

Berbers, 112, 116, 118, 121, 157, 

183. 

Beluchis, 168. 
Bertas, 187. 
Bhillas, 244. 
Bhotan, 205. 
Biddumas, 182. 
Bilins, 131. 
Birmans, 205. 
Birthplace of species, 82. 
Black Caribs, 285. 
Blondes, 147, 163. 



Boadicea, 107. 
Bohemians, 165. 
Boru Island, 236. 
Brahmans, 153, 169. 
Brahmanism, 170. 
Brahui, 243. 
Brains, size of, 26. 
Brebres, 121. 
Bretons, 107, 155. 
Briges, 167. 
Bretons, 107. 
Bronze, Asian, 145. 
Brunettes, 147, 163. 
Buddhism, 69, 70, 170, 201. 
Bugis, 233. 
Bulgarians, 165, 210. 
Burgundians, 163. 
Bushmen, 177, 179, 214. 

Caddoes, 255. 
Caff res, 189. 
Cafusos, 23y 284. 
Caledonians, 107. 
Calf of leg, 33. 
Cambodia, 170. 
Cambodians, 206. 
Canaanites, 126. 
Canarese, 244. 
Canon of proportion, 36. 
Cantab rians, 121, 143. 
Carians, 159. 
Caribs, 268, 285. 
Carthaginians, 120, 125, 130, 
Caste, 170. 
Caucasic stock, 170. 
" Caucasian " race, 172. 
Caucasus, 105, 112. 
Celt-Indic stock, 144. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



307 



Celtic peoples, 154. 

Celtic type, 107. 

Celts, 107, III, 150, 151. 

Celtiberians, 121. 

Ceylon, 222. 

Chaco, the, 271. 

Chaldeans, 137, 199. 

Changallas, 181. 

Chata-Muskokis, 254. 

Chepewyans, 251. 

Chibchas, 271. 

Chilluks, 181. 

Chinese, the, 198. 

Chinos, 285. 

Chiriqui, 267. 

Chukchis, 214, 215. 

Circassians, 171, 

Civilization, loi, 288. 

Climate, 40. 

Cochin-China, 205. 

Color in race, 29. 

Color of skin, 30. 

Color of eyes, 32. 

Color sense, 36. 

Comanches, 257. 

Commerce, pre-historic, 75. 

Communal marriage, 53. 

Confucius, 202. 

Congo, the, 177, 178, 189, 190. 

Coptic, 120, 127, 150. 

Cossacks, 210. 

Craniology, 19. 

Creeks, 255, 

Criteria of superiority, 47. 

Croatians, 165. 

Culture defined, loi. 

Cuneiform writing, 126. 

Cyclopean walls, 160. 



Cymri, 108, 112. 
Cymric, 107, 155. 
Cypriotes, 130. 
Cyprus, 159. 
Czechs, 165. 

Dacians, 158, 166. 
Daghestan, 171. 
Dahomey, 185. 
Dakotas, 254. 
Dalmatians, 165. 
Danakils, 131. 
Danes, 163. 
Dayaks, 233, 234. 
Deluge myth, 114, 144. 
Destiny of Races, 292. 
Dinkas, 181. 
Disease in races, 39. 
Djats, 169. 
Djurjura, iii, 119. 
Dravidians, 169, 239, 243, 284. 
Dryopithecus, the, 84. 

Easter Island, 236, 238. 
Egypt, stone age, 129. 
Egyptians, 42, 120, 121, 123, 127. 
Ehkilis, 133, 134. 
Eranic peoples, 166. 
Eskimos, 21, 54, 215, 249. 
Esthonians, 212. 
Ethical standards, 58. 
Ethics, primitive, 59. 
Ethiopia, 177. 
Ethiopians, 135. 
Ethnic psychology, 52. 
Ethnographic scheme, 99. 
Etruscans, 124, 130, 155, 156. 



3o8 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



Eurafrica, 89. 

Eurafrican Race, 97, 103, 298. 

Eurasia, 89, 196. 

Eurasians, 107, 112. 

Euskaric stock, 142. 

Euskaric type, 159. 

Evolution, 80, 81. 

Exogamy, 43, 46. 

Eyes, orbits of, 23; color, 31. 

Facial angle, 24. 
Fans, 188. 
Fanti, 185. 
Fellahs, 188. 
Fellata, 183. 
Fetichism, 68. 
Fine arts, 73. 
Plnnic group, 211. 
Finns, 212. 
Finno-Ugric, 206. 
Flatheads, 23. 
Folk-lore, 82. 
Food, 40. 
Formosa, 224. 
Franks, 163. 
French, 156. 
Friendship, 55. 
Fuegians, 53, 27I0 
Fundjas, 187. 

Gaelic, 154. 
Gando, 183. 
Gallas, 131. 
Gauls, 107. 
Geez, 135. 
Genghis Khan, 209. 
Gens, 56, 57. 
Getulians, 116. 



Geographical provinces, 95. 
Georgians, 171. 
Germany, 157. 
Germans, 163. 
Ghadames, 116. 
Ghanata, 176. 
Ghiliaks, 215. 
Glacial age, 91. 
Gondwana, 222, 
Goths, 112, 125, 163. 
Great Mogul, 209. 
Greek language, 160. 
Greeks, 45. 

Gaunches, 116, 117, 122, 130. 
Guinea, 184, 
Gypsies, 169. 

Hadramaut, 134, 136. 
Haidahs, 257. 
Hair, the, 32. 
Hamitic stock, 115. 
Harrari, 135. 
Haussas, 182. 
Heart line, 29. 
Hebrews, 139. 
Heel, in negroes, 28. 
Hellenic peoples, 159. 
Heterogenesis, 81. 
Himyarites, 133, 186. 
Hindoos, 169. 
Hittites, 126, 214. 
Hottentots, 35, 177, 179. 
Hovas, 233. 
Huns, 210. 
Hunzas, 169. 

larbas, 122. 

Iberi, 121, 122, [43. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



309 



Iberian peninsula, 121, 157. 
niyrians, 152, 158. 
Illyric peoples, 158. 
Inca bone, 23. 
" Indians," 247. 
Indo-Chinese, 205. 
Indo-Eranic peoples, 166. 
Innuit, 249. 
Irish, 107, 154. 
Iroquois, 254. 
Ishmaelites, 133. 
Islam, 69, 70, 203. 
Israelites, 137. 
Italians, 156. 
Italic peoples, 155. 

Jakout, 210. 
Jalin, 136. 
Japyges, 158. 
Japanese, 216. 
Japetus, 105. 
Javanese, 234. 
Jaws, shape of, 24. 
Jews, 139, 299. 
Joktanides, 136. 

Kabyles, iii, 116, 117, 118, 128. 

Kanembus, 182. 

Kanoris, 182. 

Kavi, 234. 

Kalihari desert, 179. 

Kalmucks, 208. 

Kamschatkans, 215. 

Karelians, 212. 

Khamers, 131. 

Khmers, 206. 

Khonds, 244. 

Kiks, 181. 



Kimos, 179. 
Kioways, 256. 
Kirghis, 211. 
Kists, 171. 
Kohls, 244. 
Koraks, 215. 
Koreans, 218. 
Kurdistan, 167. 
Kurgans, 165. 

Ladakis, 205. 

I^adinish, 156. 

Ladins, 107. 

Lamuts, 208. 

Language, 60-66. 

Languages, scheme of, 64. 

Laos, 206. 

Lao-tse, 202. 

Latin peoples, 156. 

Latins, 152, 155. 

Lapps, 35, 212. 

Leleges, 159. 

Lemuria, 223. 

Lemurian reversion, 271. 

Lesghians, 171. 

Lettic peoples, 162. 

Letto-Slavs, .152. 

Leucaethiopes, 116. 

Lhasa, 204. 

Libyan group, 115. 

Libyans, 116, 117. 

Libyo-Teutonic type, 106, 118. 

Ligurians, 150, 155. 

Linguistic stocks, 61. 

Lipans, 251. 

Lithuanian language, 149, 162. 

Livoanians, 212. 

Loan words, 65. 



3IO 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



Lolo, 198. 
Lombards, 163. 
Loochoo Islands, 218. 
Love words, 54. 
Luristan, 167. 



Macassars, 234. 
Macedonians, 158. 
Madagascar, 179, 222. 
Magna Grecia, 161. 
Magyars, 212. 
Malayalas, 244. 
Malays, 230, 232, 239. 
Mallinki, 184. 
Manchus, 207. 
Mandingoes, 183, 184, 193. 
Mangues, 266. 
Mantras, 224. 
Manx, 107, 154. 
Maoris, 236. 
Marghis, 182. 
Masiti, 190. 
Massagetes, 164. 
Mauritanians, 116. 
Mayas, 263. 
Mazimbas, 189. 
Megalithic structure, 120. 
Melanesians, 227, 228. 
Melanism, 45. 
Melle, 176, 193. 
Menephtah inscription, 123. 
Metissage, 45, 47. 
Miaotse, 198. 
Micronesians, 245. 
Migrations, early, 74. 
Mincopies, 224. 
Mingling of races, 45. 
Mingrelians, 171. 



Mixtecs, 262. 
Modesty, 59. 
Mohammedanism, 70. 
Monbuttus, 187. 
Monogenism, 79. 
Montenegrins, 165. 
Mois, 224. 

" Mound Builders," 255. 
Mundas, 244. 
Muscular habits, ^^^ 
Mzabites, 116, 133. 

Nabotheans, 133. 
Namollos, 215. 
Nasal index, 23. 
Navajos, 251. 
Negrillos, 177. 
Negritos, 223. 
Negroes, the, 181. 
Negroids, the, 185^ 
Negus, the Grand, 137. 
Nepalese, 205. 
Niger, the, 175, 176, 182. 
Nile, the, 175, 185. 
Nile, valley, 91, 129. 
Ninevites, 126. 
Norsemen, 163. 
Nose, shape of, 24. 
Nubians, 45. 
Nubus, 187. 
Nuers, i8r. 
Numidians, 116. 
Nyam-Nyams, 187. 

Oases, 176. 
Obongos, 178. 
Old Prussian, 162. 
Orbital index, 23. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



3iit 



Oscans, 151, 155. 
Osmanlis, 210. 
Ossetes, 167. 

Palaeolithic implement, 84, 90. 

Pali, 169. 

Pamir plateau, 195, 198, 210. 

Papuas, 227, 229. 

Parsees, 112, 167. 

Pawnees, 256. 

Pelasgians, 214. 

Pelvic index, 28. 

Permians, 212. 

Personal loyalty, 56. 

Persians, 167. 

Phenicians, 126, 138, 160. 

Phonetic laws, 64. 

Phratries, 57. 

Phrygians, 159. 

Physical ideal, 41. 

Picts, 114, 143. 

Po, plain of, 1 1 1 . 

Poles, 165. 

Polyandry, 53. 

Polygenism, 79. 

Polynesians, 235. 

Portuguese, 156, 157. 

Prakrit, 169. 

Proto-Aryac language, 148. 

Proto-Hellenes, 160. 

Proto-Semitic languages, 119. 

Puis, 188. 

Punt, the land, 176. 

Pygmies, 177. 

Qquichuas, 272. 
Quaternary, geography, 86. 
Quimos, 179. 



Races, development, 92. 
Races, classification, 97. 
Races, subdivisions, 98. 
Rajpoots, 169. 
Rapanui, 238. 
Red hair, 45. 
Religion, (f], 
Rifians, 116, 125. 
Rig Veda, 169. 
River drift men, 84, 91. 
Romance languages, 156, 
Romany, 169. 
Roumanians, 156, 157. 
Russians, 165. 
Ruthenians, 165. 

Sabeans, 133. 

Sahaptins, 258. 

Sahara, the, 87, 88, 116, 173, 176. 

Sakaies, 224. 

Sakulavas, 189. 

Sakya Muni, 69. 

Samaritans, 137. 

Sambaquis, 269. 

Samnites, 155. 

Samoyeds, 212. 

Sandehs, 187. 

Sansandig, 183. 

Sanscrit, 145, 160, 168. 

Santals,*244. 

Sarmatians, 164. 

Savai, 236. 

Saxons, 163. 

Scotch, the, 154. 

Scythians, 164. 

Senegal, 183, 184. 

Semangs, 224. 

Semites, cradle of, 132. 



2,J2 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



Sereres, 183. 
Serkus, 116. 
Servians, 165. 
Sex relations, ^y. 
Sexual impulse, 53. 
Sexual preference, 43. 
Shamanism, 68. 
Sheba, Queen of, 133. 
Shilhas, 116. 
Shintoism, 217. 
Shoshonees, 256. 
Siagosch, 112. 
Siamese, 206, 
Sibiric Branch, 206. 
Sicily, 161. 

Simiadae in Europe, 85. 
Sinhalese, 235. 
Sinitic Branch, 197. 
Skulls, shape of, 21. 
Skypetars, 158. 
Slavonic peoples, 164. 
Sokoto, 183. 
Somalis, T32. 
Sononki, 184. 
Spaniards, 156. 
Spanish Americans, 45. 
Special senses, 36. 
Steatopygy, 35. 
Stone age, 91. 
Stone age in Egypt, 129. 
Suahelis, 189. 
Sudan, the, 181, 182. 
Suevi, 112. 
Suomi, 212. 
Susians, 224. 
Sutures of skull, 22. 
Swedes, 163. 



Syrians, 126, 137, 161. 
Sygyni, 166. 

Taboo, 237. 
Tadchiks, 168. 
Tagalas, 232, 233. 
Tamerlane, 209. 
Tamils, 244. 
Tanganyika Lake, 190. 
Tapuyas, 270. 
Tarascos, 262. 
Tartar or Tatar, 209. 
Tasmanians, 240. 
Tavastes, 212. 
Tchad, Lake, 175, 182. 
Teeth, the, 26. 
Telugus, 244. 
Teutonic peoples, 163. 
Thai, 206. 
Thibetans, 204. 
Thracians, 158, 167. 
Tibbus, 116, 183. 
Tibia, shape of, 28. 
Tigres, 135. 
Timbuctoo, 183. 
Tinneh, 251. 
THnkit, 257. 
Tonkinese, 206. 
Todas, 183, 244. 
Tonga, 236. 
Totem, the, 56. 
Touaregs, 122. 
Transylvania, 166. 
Tribal religions, 69. 
Tuariks, 116, 125. 
Tungus, 207. 
Tunisia, 90, 119, 120. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



313 



Tupis, 269. 
*^ Turanian," 213. 
Turcomans, 210. 
Turks, 161, 209, 210. 
Types of white race, 106. 

Ugrians, 212. 
Umbrians, 151, 156. 
Ural-Altaic, 206. 
Utes, 43. 

Vandals, 112, 125, 163. 
Vans, 114, 153. 
Veddahs, 230, 235. 
Volaplik, 67. 
Volscians, 155. 
Vouatouas, 178, 



Waganda, 190, 

Wallachians, 156, 

Walloons, 107, 

War, 76-78. 

Watuta, 190. 

Welsh, 107, 154. 

Wends, 165, 

White Nile, 176, 181, 182. 

Wolofs, 183, 184. 

Woman, 38, 58. 

World religions, 69. 

Zambesi river, 189. 
Zapotecs, 262. 
Zend, 145, 167. 
Zulus, 189. 
Zunis, 258. 



